Learning and Developmental Disabilities Sourcebook, 1st Ed.

By Omnigraphics

Provides basic consumer health information about learning and developmental disabilities; their types, causes, diagnosis, and treatment; and information about caring for people with learning and developmental disabilities, along with school and career options available for them. Includes resources for additional help and information.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Omnigraphics
• Release date: Apr 1, 2021
• ISBN: 9780780818927

Book preview

Preface

About This Book

Learning and developmental disabilities refer to the functional limitations caused by neurological disorders. They can usually be identified in infancy or childhood. Learning disabilities affect a child’s ability to speak, read, write, and do mathematical calculations while developmental disabilities affect the day-to-day functioning of the child. There are different types of learning and developmental disabilities. A child may have more than one type of disability. If you think your child is displaying signs of any such disabilities, it is important to consult a pediatrician and seek early intervention services. Although learning and developmental disabilities may last a person’s entire life, people with these disabilities can lead a normal life with proper support.

Learning and Developmental Disabilities Sourcebook, First Edition describes the process of learning and provides information about early learning. It discusses the basics of development in children along with the facts about speech, language, social, and emotional development. It explains what learning and developmental disabilities are and provides statistical data on their prevalence. Specific types of learning and developmental disabilities are discussed along with their causes, symptoms, and diagnostic procedures. It also explains how to care for people with learning and developmental disabilities and provides information about the school and career options available for them. The problems commonly faced by people with disabilities such as bullying, coping with sibling issues, and barriers to participation are discussed and tips to lead an independent life are provided. It also offers information about the rights of people with disabilities and the benefits available for them. The book concludes with a directory of resources for further help and support.

How to Use This Book

This book is divided into parts and chapters. Parts focus on broad areas of interest. Chapters are devoted to single topics within a part.

Part 1: Process of Learning begins with an explanation on the physiology of learning and provides facts about early learning. It provides information about learning disabilities and offers statistical data on the prevalence of learning disabilities.

Part 2: Development Milestones explains how to monitor and screen a child’s development. It provides an overview of speech, language, social, and emotional development. It talks about developmental disabilities and provides statistical data on the prevalence of developmental disabilities.

Part 3: Specific Types of Learning Disabilities describes the most common forms of learning disabilities including dyslexia, dysgraphia, language and speech disorders, visual processing disorder, and so on. It explains what these disorders are, how they are diagnosed, and how they are treated.

Part 4: Specific Types of Developmental Disabilities talks about various developmental disabilities such as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), cerebral palsy (CP), apraxia of speech, Tourette syndrome, etc., along with the information about their causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment.

Part 5: Caring for People with Learning and Developmental Disabilities talks about the special care required for people with learning and developmental disabilities. It highlights the importance of early intervention and provides facts about different school and career options available. The prevalence of COVID-19 among people with developmental disabilities is also discussed.

Part 6: Living with Learning and Developmental Disabilities discusses the common problems encountered by people with disabilities such as bullying, coping with sibling issues, and barriers to participation. It provides useful tips for those with learning and developmental disabilities to lead an independent life. Information about the benefits available for people with disabilities is also discussed.

Part 7: Additional Resources provides a directory of resources for further help and support.

Bibliographic Note

This volume contains documents and excerpts from publications issued by the following U.S. government agencies: Center for Parent Information & Resources (CPIR); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); Literacy Information and Communication System (LINCS); National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA); National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS); National Institutes of Health (NIH); National Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD); U.S. Department of Education (ED); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS); U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ); U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT); U.S. Social Security Administration (SSA); and Youth.gov.

It also contains original material produced by Omnigraphics and reviewed by medical consultants.

Medical Review

Omnigraphics contracts with a team of qualified, senior medical professionals who serve as medical consultants for the Disability Series. As necessary, medical consultants review reprinted and originally written material for currency and accuracy. Citations including the phrase Reviewed (month, year) indicate material reviewed by this team. Medical consultation services are provided to the Disability Series editors by:

Dr. Vijayalakshmi, MBBS, DGO, MD

Dr. Senthil Selvan, MBBS, DCH, MD

Dr. K. Sivanandham, MBBS, DCH, MS (Research), PhD

About the DISABILITY Series

At the request of librarians serving the one in four Americans who live with a disability and those seeking the information needed to understand, navigate, and manage a disability, the Disability Series was developed as a specially focused set of volumes within Omnigraphics’ Health Reference Series. Each volume deals comprehensively with a topic selected according to the needs and interests of these patrons. The volumes provide the authoritative health information that librarians rely on to arm consumers with the facts they need to take control of their well-being and address and inform themselves about health challenges that they or a family member or loved one are facing. Patrons seeking this information will find answers to their questions in the Disability Series. The Series, however, is not intended to serve as a tool for diagnosing disability, in prescribing treatments, or as a substitute for the healthcare provider–patient relationship. All people concerned about medical symptoms or the possibility of disability or illness are encouraged to seek professional care from an appropriate healthcare provider.

An accessible Disability Resource Center portal will serve as a companion product for this series.

If there is a topic you would like to see addressed in a future volume of the Disability Series, please write to:

Managing Editor

Disability Series

Omnigraphics

615 Griswold St., Ste. 520

Detroit, MI 48226

A Note about Spelling and Style

Disability Series editors use Stedman’s Medical Dictionary as an authority for questions related to the spelling of medical terms and The Chicago Manual of Style for questions related to grammatical structures, punctuation, and other editorial concerns. Consistent adherence is not always possible, however, because the individual volumes within the Series include many documents from a wide variety of different producers, and the editor’s primary goal is to present material from each source as accurately as is possible. This sometimes means that information in different chapters or sections may follow other guidelines and alternate spelling authorities. For example, occasionally a copyright holder may require that eponymous terms be shown in possessive forms (Crohn’s disease vs. Crohn disease) or that British spelling norms be retained (leukaemia vs. leukemia).

Part 1 | Process of Learning

Chapter 1 | Physiology of Learning

The human brain is the central organ that controls various activities in the human body ranging from regulating hormone production to initiating voluntary limb movement and involuntary processes such as respiration or digestion. The structure of the human brain is mainly divided into three parts:

The cerebrum is the largest and outermost part of the brain and is divided into two hemispheres, each having four lobes called the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes that collectively control vision, speech, hearing, reading, emotions, and limb movements. The temporal lobe in both hemispheres controls memory associated with learning.

The cerebellum is present behind the cerebrum, at the back of the head, and maintains the body’s balance, movement, coordination, muscle control, and equilibrium.

The brainstem connects the cerebrum and the spinal cord. It controls the involuntary actions of the body, such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.

The parts of the brain involved in learning and memory are the cerebrum, the prefrontal cortex, and the amygdala and hippocampus both of which are located in the temporal lobe.

Brain Development

A human brain grows and develops from the fetal stage up to the age of five. A developing brain in a child can produce almost a million neural connections in a second. The brain has the ability called neuroplasticity since it can form and improve these neural connections. In growing children, the most crucial aspect of growth is their brain development, which is influenced by the physical and emotional experiences around the child. At birth, an individual is born with all the nerve cells or neurons they require or will have during their entire lifetime. At around two years of age, the child’s brain is 80 percent the size of an adult brain.

Children are born with the ability to learn. Encouraging this ability by speaking to, reading to, and interacting with the child helps protect the brain from undue stress. A child learns to read and communicate better when introduced to language aids such as books, stories, and songs.

The Physiological Process of Learning

Learning is the physical process of acquiring or gaining new information, skills, and knowledge through training, study, or instruction. This learned information is represented in the brain by the formation of new brain cell connections. Growth factors include chemicals in the brain that influence and facilitate the strength of these connections. Learning in the human brain depends on many individual neurons connected by electrical and chemical junctions called synapses. In the brain, learning processes are noticed when existing synapses grow and new synapses are formed.

A neuron is made of dendrites, a cell body, and the axon. Connections are passed between synapses of neurons when an electrical signal passes from the axon of the neuron to the next neuron’s dendrite. At the synapse, tiny sacs of neurotransmitters are released due to the signal in the last neuron. These neurotransmitters attach to the receptor chemicals in the next nerve cell. Once the learning’s sensory information is passed along the neural pathway through synapses, it is stored as short-term memory for 10 to 30 seconds and then stored as long-term memory by making a conscious effort to retain it.

The electrophysiology changes, morphology, and molecules of the nerve cells comprise the physiological process of learning. In the brain, learning is facilitated by long-term potentiation (LTP), which reinforces stronger neural connections. During the learning process in the brain, neurotransmitters are released, which activate AMPA receptors (isoxazole propionic acid receptor) in neurons. This allows the calcium ions to move in and change the electric potential of the receiving neuron. Repetition of this process produces more AMPA receptors, which make the neurons sensitive and reinforces the connection. The neurotransmitter glutamate (glutamic acid) influences the processes of long-term memory.

A study by Thomas Jefferson University showed that learning causes new molecular organizations that occur when learning-based connections are strengthened. These molecular organizations, also called nano modules, multiply and vibrate under the influence of neural signals while learning.

Repeating and practicing a new skill after learning helps the dendrites between the neurons grow, strengthening the network associated with that memory or skill. Using the skill or knowledge gained helps forge more robust neural pathways in the brain.

References

Klemm, William T. How Does Learning Change the Brain? Psychology Today, January 7, 2020.

Ford, Donald J. How the Brain Learns, Training Industry, July 20, 2011.

Physiology of Learning and Memory, Lecturio, October 5, 2020.

Wingeier, Brett. What Processes Are Taking Place in Our Brains When We Learn New Things? Forbes, January 26, 2018.

Brain Basics: Know Your Brain, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), February 13, 2020.

Early Brain Development and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), March 5, 2020.

Moran, Thomas. The Amazing Neuroscience and Physiology of Learning, Medium, July 26, 2018.

Brain Development, First Things First, September 16, 2019.

How the Brain Works, Johns Hopkins Medicine, December 3, 2018.

Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory, Lumen, June 2016.

How the Brain Works – And How Students Can Respond, TeachThought, November 21, 2015.

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Physiology of Learning, © 2021 Omnigraphics. Reviewed March 2021.

Chapter 2 | Early Learning

Section 2.1 | Importance of Early Learning

Section 2.2 | Early Childhood Education

Section 2.1 | Importance of Early Learning

This section contains text excerpted from the following sources: Text beginning with the heading What Is Early Learning? is excerpted from Early Learning: Condition Information, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), December 1, 2016. Reviewed March 2021; Text beginning with the heading Learning and Development in the Preschool Years is excerpted from Early Beginnings – Early Literacy Knowledge and Instruction, Literacy Information and Communication System (LINCS), 2009. Reviewed March 2021.

What Is Early Learning?

Children begin learning in the womb. From the moment they are born, interaction with the world around them helps them build crucial skills. For example:

By 3 months of age, babies can recognize people they know.

By 8 to 12 months, babies can recognize themselves in the mirror.

From 18 months to preschool age, children can learn nine new words each day.

Children learn all kinds of basic skills and concepts from the people and world around them:

In the first few years of life, children start to become independent, learning how to act and how to control their emotions and behaviors.

They learn language; math skills such as shapes, numbers, and counting; prereading skills such as how to hold a book and follow along as someone reads to them; and, with them, skills for lifelong learning.

They also start forming relationships of trust and develop ways to handle and resolve problems.

Making sure children have good learning experiences during their early years – whether at home, in childcare, or in preschool – will support their lifelong learning, health, and well-being.

Why Is Early Learning Important?

Early learning paves the way for learning at school and throughout life. What children learn in their first few years of life – and how they learn it – can have long-lasting effects on their success and health as children, teens, and adults.

Studies show that supporting children’s early learning can lead to:

Higher test scores from preschool to age 21

Better grades in reading and math

A better chance of staying in school and going to college

Fewer teen pregnancies

Improved mental health

Lower risk of heart disease in adulthood

A longer lifespan

What Are Some Factors That Affect Early Learning?

A child’s home, family, and daily life have a strong effect on her or his ability to learn. Parents and guardians can control some things in their child’s life and environment, but not everything.

Some factors that can affect early learning include:

Parents’ education

Family income

The number of parents in the home

Access to books and play materials

Stability of home life

Going to preschool

Quality of child care

Stress levels and exposure to stress (in the womb, as an infant, and as a child)

How many languages are spoken at home

Why Is It Important to Study Early Learning?

Early learning can improve children’s health and well-being and have long-lasting benefits. Studying which factors affect early learning and education will help researchers:

Design better ways to help at-risk children before they start school.

Improve parent, caregiver, child care provider, and preschool teacher training.

Use research findings to design better preschool and child care programs.

Study innovative early intervention settings, such as pediatrician’s offices and home visitor programs, and ways to make these programs convenient for parents and caretakers.

For example, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) research has helped characterize a positive learning environment as one with a warm caregiver and in which the child is supported and challenged cognitively. Findings of NICHD research also link early childhood education programs to improved adult health and demonstrate that early learning programs are cost-effective.

Some examples include findings indicating that:

Research shows that Head Start has positive effects on children’s math, literacy, and vocabulary skills across the board. The program had an even greater impact – boosting early math skills most – among children whose parents spent little time reading to them or counting with them at home. Children whose homes provided a medium amount of such activities had the biggest gains in early literacy skills.

Children who have trouble developing language skills may also have trouble controlling their impulses and behaviors.

Bilingual speakers develop brain networks that help them filter out unnecessary information better than those who speak only one language. These brain networks might protect against Alzheimer disease (AD) and other age-related brain problems.

Experience and genetic factors seem to influence whether a child will have math anxiety – very strong worries about math abilities that can be disabling.

How Can Parents and Caregivers Promote Early Learning?

A child’s home, family, and daily life have a strong effect on her or his ability to learn.

You are your child’s first teacher, and every day is filled with opportunities to help her or him learn. You can help by:

Reading to your child, beginning when she or he is born

Pointing out and talking with your child about the names, colors, shapes, numbers, sizes, and quantities of objects in her or his environment

Listening and responding to your child as she or he learns to communicate

Practicing counting together

Basic things such as getting enough sleep and eating a healthy diet are also important for a child’s brain development and ability to learn. Creating a stable home with routines and support encourages children to learn and explore. Loud background sounds in the home (televisions, stereos, video games) can be distracting and stressful to young children and should be turned off or the volume lowered when they are present.

A good child care or preschool program also helps a child to learn and grow.

Learning and Development in the Preschool Years

The years from birth through age five are a critical time for children’s development and learning. Early childhood educators understand that at home and in early childhood education settings, young children learn important skills that can provide them with the cornerstones needed for the development of later academic skills. Research confirms that patterns of learning in preschool are closely linked to later achievement: children who develop more skills in the preschool years perform better in the primary grades.

The development of early skills appears to be particularly important in the area of literacy. It is estimated that more than a third of all American fourth-graders (and an even higher percentage of our at-risk students) read so poorly that they cannot complete their schoolwork successfully. Providing young children with critical precursor skills to reading can offer a path to improving overall achievement.

Connection between Early Literacy Skills and How Children Learn to Be Readers, Writers, and Spellers

Early literacy skills have a clear and consistently strong relationship with later conventional literacy skills, such as decoding, oral reading, fluency, reading comprehension, writing, and spelling. Even before children start school, they can become aware of systematic patterns of sounds in spoken language, manipulate sounds in words, recognize words and break them apart into smaller units, learn the relationship between sounds and letters, and build their oral language and vocabulary skills. These are all skills that the National Early Literacy Panel (NELP) found to be precursors to children’s later growth in the ability to decode and comprehend text, to write, and to spell.

Although there is evidence of a link between early literacy and later developing literacy skills, some early literacy skills appear to be more important than others. The strongest and most consistent predictors of later literacy development are alphabet knowledge, phonological awareness and memory, rapid automatized naming of letters and objects, and writing letters. As shown on the next page, there are other early foundational skills that also can make a difference in getting children ready for the next step – for learning how to read.

Early Predictors of Later Conventional Literacy Skills

Here are the early literacy skills that the National Early Literacy Panel (NELP) found to be most important for the later development of literacy skills such as decoding, oral reading fluency, reading comprehension, writing, and spelling.

Strong and Consistent Predictors

Knowing the names of printed letters

Being able to label letters correctly, for example, that ‘F’ is the letter called eff

Knowing the sounds associated with printed letters

Understanding that the sound /f/ goes with the letter ‘F’

Or, knowing that the letters ‘at’ at the end of words are pronounced aah-tuh

Being able to manipulate the sounds of spoken language – breaking words apart into smaller sound units such as syllables or phonemes, adding or deleting sound units

Understanding that the word bulldozer is made up of 3 syllables, ‘bull,’ ‘doz,’ and ‘er’

Or, knowing that if you take away the /j/ sound from the word ‘change,’ you get the word ‘chain’

Being able to rapidly name a sequence of letters, numbers, objects, or colors

When shown a set of numbers, being able to name numbers in order, quickly and easily

Or, being able to recognize patterns of objects or colors

Being able to write one’s own name or even isolated letters

Being able to put one’s own name on a drawing

Or, being able to correctly write letters that are shown on a set of word cards

Being able to remember the content of spoken language for a short time

Being able to remember simple, multistep instructions from the teacher about getting ready for outdoor time (e.g., cleanup table, put materials on shelf, stand in line at the door)

Or, being able to remember earlier parts of a story read aloud to make sense of later parts of the story

Moderate Predictors

Knowing some of the conventions of English print, including how to use a book or other printed materials

Understanding that print is read and written from left to right, top to bottom

Or, knowing the difference between the front and back of a book and that books are read from front to back

Being able to recognize and identify environmental print

Being able to decode or read common signs and logos

Or, being able to identify product or company names for common products or establishments

Knowing how to put concepts, thoughts,