The Pilot's Manual: Instrument Flying: Earn an Instrument Rating and safely fly under IFR and in IMC

By The Pilot’s Manual Editorial Team

An Instrument Rating opens new doors—enabling a pilot to fly more, day or night, in clear or cloudy weather. A pilot with an Instrument Rating is a skilled aviator who has demonstrated mastery of the airplane’s instrument systems and can use preflight and enroute information, aeronautical decision making (ADM), and their knowledge of procedures and regulations to execute a safe flight. The Pilot’s Manual: Instrument Flying provides everything a pilot needs to earn their Instrument Rating and fly safely under instrument flight rules (IFR) and in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC).

The eighth edition of Instrument Flying covers all of the required knowledge and skills outlined in the Airman Certification Standards to pass the FAA Knowledge Exam and checkride for the Instrument Rating, from basic attitude instrument flying to IFR procedures. Students will also learn effective preflight planning, navigation, and meteorology. Clear text and hundreds of full-color illustrations simplify complicated IFR procedures and maneuvers such as holding patterns, intercepting and tracking a course, and flying an approach with crosswinds. This edition has been updated to reflect upgrades to the National Airspace System (NAS) infrastructure, new navigation technologies, and changing weather services available to pilots.

Also included are study questions and answer keys to aid home or classroom study and an extensive glossary of aviation acronyms.

Foreword by Barry Schiff. This book is part of The Pilot’s Manual Series—used by leading universities as their standard classroom texts.

Also available in The Pilot’s Manual Series:
Flight School—Master the flight maneuvers required for private, commercial, and instructor certification
Ground School—Pass the FAA Knowledge Exam and operate as a private or commercial pilot
Multi-Engine Flying—Add a Multi-Engine Rating to your pilot certificate
Airline Transport Pilot—Complete the ATP CTP and become an aviation professional

• Language: English
• Publisher: Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.
• Release date: Aug 16, 2022
• ISBN: 9781644251935

Book preview

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The Pilot’s Manual: Instrument Flying

Earn an Instrument Rating and safely fly under IFR and in IMC

Eighth Edition

Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

7005 132nd Place SE

Newcastle, Washington 98059

[e-mail] | 425-235-1500 | asa2fly.com

Copyright © 2022 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder. While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc., assumes no responsibility for damages resulting from the use of the information contained herein.

None of the material in this book supersedes any operational documents or procedures issued by the Federal Aviation Administration, aircraft and avionics manufacturers, flight schools, or the operators of aircraft.

Eighth edition published 2022 by Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

Originally published 1990–1997 by Center for Aviation Theory.

ASA-PM-3E-EB

ISBN 978-1-64425-193-5

Additional formats available:

Print Book ISBN 978-1-64425-191-1

eBook PDF ISBN 978-1-64425-194-2

eBundle ISBN 978-1-64425-192-8

Acknowledgements:

Original illustrations: Rob Loriente

Photographs: FM Photographics, Aviation Theory Centre, Cessna, Cirrus, and Lightwing

Page 220, figure 11-6: istockphoto © Bruce Bean

Front cover: Photo by Oskar Kadaksoo on Unsplash

Back cover: iStock.com/NNehring

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Names: Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc., issuing body.

Title: Instrument flying : earn an instrument rating and safely fly under IFR and in IMC / foreword by Barry Schiff.

Other titles: Pilot’s manual. Instrument flying. | Pilot’s manual. Instrument flying : earn an instrument rating and safely fly under IFR and in IMC | Pilot's manual (Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.) ; 3.

Description: Eighth edition. | Newcastle, Washington : Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc., 2022. | Series: Pilot’s manual ; 3 | Includes index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2021057330 (print) | LCCN 2021057331 (ebook) | ISBN 9781644251911 (hardback) | ISBN 9781644251935 (epub) | ISBN 9781644251942 (pdf) | ISBN 9781644251928

Subjects: LCSH: Instrument flying--Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Instrument flying—Examinations—Study guides. | Air pilots—Licenses—United States. | Airplanes—Piloting. | LCGFT: Handbooks and manuals.

Classification: LCC TL711.B6 P55 2022 (print) | LCC TL711.B6 (ebook) | DDC 629.132/5214—dc23/eng/20220105

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021057330

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021057331

Foreword

When it was time to take my private pilot written examination in 1955, my flight instructor handed me a pocket-size booklet. It was published by the Civil Aeronautics Administration (FAA’s predecessor) and contained 200 true/false questions (including answers).

Study these well, he cautioned with a wink, because the test consists of 50 of these.

As I flipped through the dozen or so pages, my anxiety about the pending examination dissolved into relief. Nothing could be easier, I thought. One question, for example, stated True or False: It is dangerous to fly through a thunderstorm. Really. (I passed the test with flying colors—but so did everyone else in those days.)

The modern pilot, however, must know a great deal more to hurdle today’s more-challenging examinations. This has resulted in a crop of books developed specifically to help pilots pass tests. Unfortunately, some do little else, and the student’s education remains incomplete.

An exciting exception is The Pilot’s Manual series. These voluminous manuals provide far in excess of that needed to pass examinations. They are also chock-full of practical advice and techniques that are as useful to experienced pilots as they are to students.

The Pilot’s Manuals are a refreshingly creative and clever approach that simplifies and adds spice to what often are regarded as academically dry subjects. Reading these books is like sitting with an experienced flight instructor who senses when you might be having difficulty with a subject and patiently continues teaching until confident that you understand.

Barry Schiff

Los Angeles

Barry Schiff has over 27,000 hours in more than 320 types of aircraft. He is retired from Trans World Airlines, where he flew everything from the Lockheed Constellation to the Boeing 747 and was a check captain on the Boeing 767. He has earned every FAA category and class rating (except airship) and every possible instructor’s rating. He has received numerous honors for his contributions to aviation. An award-winning journalist and author, he is well known to flying audiences for his many articles published in some 100 aviation periodicals, notably AOPA Pilot, of which he is a contributing editor, and ASA publishes several of his titles.

About the Editorial Team

Tina Anderson

Tina Anderson is a First Officer with a major airline currently flying the Airbus A330 primarily on international routes. She once served as an Associate Professor and Assistant Chair of Academics, Aviation, at the University of North Dakota. She holds Airline Transport Pilot and Flight Instructor certificates and has airline experience in the B-757, B-767, MD-88, MD-90, DC-9, and DHC-8 aircraft. She holds a B.S. in Aeronautical Studies and an M.S. of Aviation from the University of North Dakota.

Jason Blair

Jason Blair is the current Executive Director of the National Association of Flight Instructors, a NAFI Master Flight Instructor, an FAA Designated Pilot Examiner, and the owner of a fight school and FBO in Michigan. He is actively involved in the aviation community and continues to instruct students for a variety of ratings and certificates. He commutes to work weekly in his own aircraft, a 1967 Piper Cherokee, and regularly encounters actual instrument conditions in which to use his instrument training.

Bruce Chase

Bruce Chase has taught flight at LeTourneau University for 18 years. He has given over 5,000 hours of flight instruction and 1,700 hours of instrument instruction. He earned his B.S. in Aviation Technology from LeTourneau University and his Master of Aeronautical Science degree from Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. At LeTourneau, he serves on the flight curriculum team and was involved in transitioning the flight training to FAA-Industry Training Standards (FITS). He also serves as the Safety Manager for the School of Aviation. His research interests include flight training and instrument flying. He holds an FAA Gold Seal MEI, CFI, and CFII, as well as Advanced and Instrument Ground Instructor certificates.

Paul Craig

Dr. Paul A. Craig is a Professor of Aerospace at Middle Tennessee State University. He earned the Doctor of Education degree, holds the Airline Transport Pilot Certificate, and the Gold Seal Flight Instructor Certificate for instrument, multi-engine, and seaplane. Dr. Craig is the author of numerous books, curricula, and journal articles in flight training and air safety. He is a two-time FAA District Flight Instructor of the Year, a frequent speaker at pilot seminars, and is the 2004 recipient of the UAA Wheatley Award, which is given annually to the nation’s most outstanding aviation educator. Dr. Craig worked with NASA on research pertaining to flight training in Technically Advanced Aircraft and won the 2005 NASA Turning Goals into Reality award. He is also an active FAA Check Instructor, and a consultant and curriculum writer for Cirrus Design.

Peter Dunn

Retired from United Airlines and the Air Force Reserve, Pete has flown 28 different aircraft from the 600-pound Remos to the 600,000-pound B-777. He has has seen (and flown) many combinations of avionics as they developed from round dials to integrated glass. His career has spanned the globe, including one trans-Atlantic nonstop in a Cessna 206 using dead reckoning. He currently holds AGI, ATP, Dispatcher, and FEJ certificates and served as Chair for the Flight Education Programs and taught senior level courses at Florida Institute of Technology.

Glynn Falcon

Dr. Gylnn Falcon received a B.S. in Aviation Operation from San Jose State University, and a Juris Doctor degree in 1974. He served as Director of Aviation at San Jose State University, taught college-level courses, and provided both ground and flight instruction for more than 40 years. He practiced aviation law with his own law firm until 2006 when he returned to full-time teaching. He is a member of the University Aviation Association, NBAA, AOPA, Aero Club, and Aviation Accreditation Board International. He has over 5,000 flight hours and regularly flies IFR in his GPS-equipped Piper Arrow.

James Johnson

James Johnson is the Director of Aviation Training for ASA. He has accumulated many years of aviation industry experience, from flight and ground instruction to working within corporate flight departments. James received a B.S. in Aeronautics with minors in Aviation Safety and Airport Management from Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. He holds certificates for Commercial Pilot, Advanced Ground and Instrument Instructor, as well as Remote Pilot sUAS.

Thomas Karcz

Tom Karcz earned a B.S. in Aeronautical Technology from Kansas State University and an M.S. in Aviation Safety from the University of Central Missouri. He is currently Captain and Safety Officer at Genuine Parts Company. Previously, Tom was a Demonstration Pilot for Textron Aviation, an Assistant Professor at Kansas State University, and an airline pilot for Chicago Express Airlines and Atlantic Southeast Airlines. He is an FAA Gold Seal Flight Instructor and has accumulated over 4,500 hours of flight time, including 1,000 hours as a flight instructor.

Richard Mangrum

Dr. Richard L. Mangrum is an Assistant Professor of Aeronautics at Kent State University, faculty advisor to the Kent State Precision Flight Team and former Region III representative to the National Intercollegiate Flying Association. He is an active flight instructor with over 4,000 hours of instruction given and a check instructor for all Part 141 courses at Kent State. He holds an ATP Certificate, mechanic license with airframe and powerplant ratings, and is an FAA Safety Representative for maintenance and operations. Dr. Mangrum earned an Ed.D and M.S. from Oklahoma State University while working as the Assistant Chief Instructor and adjunct instructor, a B.S. from Phillips University, and an A.A.S. from Spartan College of Aeronautics where he served as a flight and ground instructor. A former USAF H-53 helicopter mechanic, Dr. Mangrum currently teaches Instrument Flight Theory, Aviation Weather, and Aircraft Propulsions Systems.

Keith McGill

Keith McGill is Chief of Pilot Training at Lewis University where he also serves as an adjunct Associate Professor. A former Saab-340 pilot for Mesaba Airlines, Keith has been a flight instructor since 1994 and holds a Gold Seal CFIA, CFII, MEI, and an Advanced Ground Instructor certificate. Keith has taught private, instrument, commercial, multi-engine, flight instructor airplane, and flight instructor instrument ground schools at Lewis University under 14 CFR 141 and has given more than 2,500 hours of dual flight instruction. Keith earned a B.S. in Aviation Administration and an M.B.A. from Lewis University.

Arlynn McMahon

Flight instructor and flight school/owner operator Arlynn McMahon has helped more than 1,000 students fulfill their dreams of flight since 1984. She is an FAA Gold Seal Instructor and NAFI Master Instructor with CFI, CFII, MEI, and AGI ratings, and is a certificated ATP and commercial pilot. She is the recipient of multiple aviation awards including the 2009 National CFI of the Year Award and the 2010 NATA Award for Excellence in Pilot Training. Arylnn holds an M.B.A. in Strategic Leadership from Amberton University and serves as Vice President and Training Centers Manager for Aero-Tech.

Phil Rispin

Phil Rispin began flying with The Royal Canadian Air Cadets in Canada when he was 14 years old. Over the years, he has flown as a charter and corporate pilot, including time in gliders, Navajos, and the Gulfstream II. Now a career flight instructor and aviation educator, Phil is currently an Assistant Professor of Aviation Science at LeTourneau University teaching meteorology, navigation, and aerobatics.

David Robson

David Robson is a career aviator having been nurtured on balsa wood, dope (the legal kind) and tissue paper, and currently holds an Airline Transport Pilot certificate with instructor ratings. He served as a fighter pilot and test pilot for the Royal Australian Air Force, completed a tour in Vietnam as a forward air controller flying the USAF O-2A, and was a member of the Mirage formation aerobatic team, the Deltas. After retiring from the Air Force, he became a civilian instructor and lecturer for the Australian Aviation College and editor for Aviation Safety Digest, which won the Flight Safety Foundation’s International award. He was awarded the Australian Safety Foundation’s Certificate of Air Safety.

Donna Wilt

Dr. Donna Forsyth Wilt is an Associate Professor at Hampton University and head of their Flight Education Program. She holds an ATP Certificate, is a Gold Seal Flight Instructor, three-time Master CFI, and has twenty years of experience in flight education. She is on the Board of Directors of the Society of Aviation and Flight Educators (SAFE). Dr. Wilt earned a B.S. in Electrical Engineering from University of Florida. She earned both her M.S. in Electrical Engineering and her Ph.D. in Science Education from Florida Institute of Technology. Dr. Wilt previously worked as a system engineer and project manager in the avionics and government communications industry.

Introduction

An instrument-rated pilot is a complete pilot. The instrument rating allows you to employ your airplane without unnecessary restrictions. Day, night, clouds, and rain become part of the territory. Of course, you will still avoid thunderstorms, icing, severe turbulence, and microbursts.

Instrument flight is the ultimate goal of the professional—and I mean professional with regard to attitude, not employment. To file and fly IFR within precise limits and with an in-depth awareness of the regulations, procedures, and protocols of flight makes you an accomplished pilot—not a hobbyist, but a competent, fully trained pilot.

Instrument flight is not difficult; it just requires more attention—more attention to detail and more concentrated effort to keep abreast of the situation, to make decisions, and to maintain accuracy while monitoring and managing the airplane’s systems and controlling its attitude and position in space.

Instrument flight is an extension of visual flight. The principles are no different:

Attitude + power + configuration = performance (flight path and speed).

The same control equation applies, but many forget and try to fly the performance instruments. Remember: these instruments lag. They tell you what has changed after it has changed. The pilot is ahead if he or she controls the three key parameters and lets the performance fall into place. They will.

Also, in turbulence, downdrafts, and restricted visibility, the importance of controlled, accurate attitude cannot be overemphasized.

Eventually, you will reach a standard where the accuracy is there and the workload is low—you can let your personal built-in autopilot fly the airplane, and your conscious mind can observe, decide, act, and oversee the flight.

The other key to successful IFR flight is planning and preparation. Having the whole flight preplanned and pre-considered makes the in-flight workload manageable. Have the cockpit organized, the paperwork together and ordered, and the escape routes clear in your mind for each stage and possible/probable eventuality. Make sure you and your airplane are ready and equipped for IFR. Fly regularly with a check pilot, and keep yourself current with the aids and approaches that are available to you. If your airplane does not have a standby attitude indicator, you must practice partial-panel flight.

These considerations are the hallmarks of the professional—and we can be just as professional about our flying, even in our little singles and twins.

Welcome to the wonderful world of instrument flight.

David Robson

Attitude Flight

1 Introduction to Instrument Flight

2 Instrument Scanning Techniques

3 The Instruments

4 Straight-and-Level Flight

5 The Straight Climb and Descent

6 Turning

7 Unusual Attitudes

8 Normal Instrument Flight on a Partial Panel

9 Suggested Training Maneuvers

1

Introduction to Instrument Flight

Air travel becomes much more reliable when airplane operations are not restricted by poor weather or by darkness. Greater reliability can be achieved with a suitably equipped airplane and a pilot skilled in instrument flying.

The instrument-qualified pilot and the instrument-equipped airplane must be able to cope with flying in restricted visibility, such as in cloud, mist, smog, rain, snow, or at night, all of which may make the natural horizon and ground features difficult, or even impossible, to see.

As an instrument pilot, you must learn to trust what you see on the instruments. We generally use vision to orient ourselves with our surroundings, supported by other gravity-perceiving bodily senses, such as feel and balance. Even with the eyes closed, however, we can usually manage to sit, stand and walk on steady ground without losing control. This becomes much more difficult standing on the tray of an accelerating or turning truck, or even in an accelerating elevator.

Figure 1-1 Control and performance.

In an airplane, which can accelerate in three dimensions, the task becomes almost impossible unless you have the use of your eyes.

The eyes must gather information from the external ground features, including the horizon; or, in poor visibility, they gather substitute information from the instruments.

Figure 1-2 A typical flight on instruments.

A pilot’s eyes are very important, and the starting point in your instrument training will be learning to use your eyes to derive information from the instruments in the most efficient way. You will learn various scan patterns that gather the most relevant data for your particular flight maneuver. You will learn the three skills fundamental to instrument flight. These include how to scan the instruments (or, the instrument cross-check), understand their message (instrument interpretation), and be able to direct the airplane along the desired flight path in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) (i.e., airplane control).

Figure 1-3 The eyes and the instruments.

The Cockpit and Radio

Make Yourself Comfortable in the Cockpit

Instrument flying is much easier if you are comfortable in the cockpit and know your airplane well. Adjust the seat position prior to flight to ensure that you can reach all of the controls easily, and so that you have the correct eye position. The view from the cockpit window must be familiar when you break out of the clouds at a low altitude, following a successful instrument approach, and see the rapidly approaching runway. A correct eye position will make the ensuing landing, possibly in poor visibility, so much easier.

A Good Communications System Is Essential

Ensure that the radio communications equipment in the airplane is both adequate and fully serviceable. This is of great importance. One of your main responsibilities as an instrument pilot is to remain in communication with ATC. Under IMC, you will not be able to see other aircraft, nor will they be able to see you, hence the visual safety rule of see and be seen will not apply.

In IMC, see and be seen does not apply. Communications equipment is essential.

The separation of aircraft in IMC is achieved by each pilot flying along a known route at a known altitude at known times, with ATC, in cooperation with the pilots, ensuring that there are no conflicting flight paths. Good communications are therefore essential. On the rare occasions when a radio or electrical system fails, special procedures outlined in the regulation (14 CFR 91.185) will minimize risk.

During your instrument training, there will be a fair amount of talking in the cockpit. Your instructor will be explaining things to you, and offering words of encouragement as you perform the various maneuvers.

If this cockpit communication has to be done by shouting over the engine and air noise, as it was in days past, then a lot of totally unnecessary stress will be introduced into the cockpit. A good intercom system will make life a lot easier for you and for your instructor, and will save you time and money. Speak with your instructor about this.

Aeronautical Decision Making and Resource Management

Aeronautical decision making (ADM) is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances. More simply, ADM is what a pilot intends to do based on the latest information he or she has. Ongoing research has identified six steps to good decision making in an aviation environment—a foundation which was taught during your private pilot training:

1. Identify personal attitudes hazardous to safe flight.

2. Learn behavior modification techniques.

3. Learn how to recognize and cope with stress.

4. Develop risk assessment skills.

5. Use all available resources.

6. Evaluate the effectiveness of one’s ADM skills.

Two important components of ADM are crew resource management (CRM) and single-pilot resource management (SRM). Both can generally be defined as the ability of the pilot(s) to effectively use all of their available resources, which are categorized as human resources, hardware, and information both onboard the aircraft and from outside sources. This can include ATC, autopilot, and weather reports (to name a few). The principle difference between the two is that CRM is the effective use of resources available to the flight crew, cabin crew, and maintenance personnel (as typically seen in airline operations), while SRM applies to single-pilot operations and the ability of the single-pilot to manage all available resources both prior to and during flight. A primary goal of SRM training is to help you as a pilot maintain situational awareness by managing the automation and associated aircraft control and navigation tasks, which can become more stressful during IFR operations.

As an instrument pilot applicant, you will be required to demonstrate competence in resource management (CRM/SRM) appropriate to the aircraft and tasks outlined within the Airman Certification Standards (FAA-ACS-8).

There are several good resources available on the topic of ADM through FAASafety.gov and the WINGS program. You are encouraged, as part of your training, to sign up for an FAASafety.gov and WINGS program account to further your knowledge on the topic of ADM and your overall proficiency as a pilot.

Attitude Flying and Applied Instrument Flying

The first step in becoming an instrument pilot is to become competent at attitude flying on the full panel containing the six basic flight instruments. The term attitude flying means using a combination of engine power and airplane attitude to achieve the required performance in terms of flight path and airspeed.

Attitude flying on instruments is an extension of visual flying.

Attitude flying on instruments is an extension of visual flying, with your attention gradually shifting from external visual cues to the instrument indications in the cockpit, until you are able to fly accurately on instruments alone.

Partial panel attitude instrument flying, also known as limited panel, will be introduced fairly early in your training. For this exercise, the main control instrument, the attitude indicator, is assumed to have malfunctioned and is not available for use. The heading indicator, often powered from the same source as the AI, may also be unavailable.

Partial panel training will probably be practiced concurrently with full panel training, so that the exercise does not assume an importance out of proportion to its difficulty. You will perform the same basic flight maneuvers, but on a reduced number of instruments. The partial panel exercise will increase your instrument flying competence, as well as your confidence.

An excessively high or low nose attitude, or an extreme bank angle, is known as an unusual attitude. Unusual attitudes should never occur inadvertently but can result from distractions or a visual illusion. Practice in recovering from them, however, will increase both your confidence and your overall proficiency. This exercise will be practiced on both a full panel and a partial panel.

Figure 1-4 The full panel (left) and the partial panel (right).

After you have achieved a satisfactory standard in attitude flying, on both a full panel and a partial panel, your instrument flying skills will be applied to en route flights using navigation aids (NAVAIDs) and radar.

Procedural instrument flying (which means getting from one place to another) is based mainly on knowing where the airplane is in relation to a particular ground transmitter (known as orientation), and then accurately tracking to or from the ground station. Tracking is simply attitude flying, plus a wind correction angle to allow for drift.

Typical NAVAIDs used are the ADF, VOR, DME and ILS, as well as ground-based radar. In many ways, en route navigation is easier using the navigation instruments than it is by visual means. It is also more precise.

Having navigated the airplane on instruments to a destination, you must consider your approach. If instrument conditions exist, an instrument approach must be made.

If you encounter visual conditions, you may continue with the instrument approach or, with ATC authorization, shorten the flight path by flying a visual approach or a contact approach. This allows you to proceed visually to a sighted runway.

Figure 1-5 En route tracking on instruments.

Only published instrument approach procedures may be followed, with charts commonly used in the United States available from the FAA or Jeppesen. An instrument approach usually involves positioning the airplane over (or near) a ground station or a radio fix, and then using precise attitude flying to descend along the published flight path at a suitable airspeed.

If visual conditions are encountered on the instrument approach at or before a predetermined minimum altitude is reached, then the airplane may be maneuvered for a landing. If visual conditions are not met at or before this minimum altitude, execute a missed approach. Once established on the missed approach you may request another approach, hold and wait for weather to improve, or divert to an alternate airport.

Figure 1-6 Plan and profile views of a precision instrument approach (FAA chart).

The Airplane and the Ground Trainer

Practice attitude instrument flying and procedures in a simulator or ground trainer first.

A simulator, ground trainer, or basic aviation training device (BATD) is an extremely valuable training aid for practicing both attitude flying and instrument procedures. It is a great time-saver. It allows certain maneuvers (for instance, climbing turns at 5,000 feet) to be practiced without having to preflight check an actual airplane, then taxi out, wait in the queue, takeoff and climb for ten minutes, and so on. It is not dependent on weather—adverse weather conditions will not stop your practice. It allows easy conversation between student and instructor without the distraction of engine noise or radio calls. Time can be frozen, while the instructor discusses points of detail before the exercise continues.

Maneuvers can be repeated without delay and without interruption. Instrument procedures, such as an ILS approach to busy JFK International Airport in New York, can be practiced repeatedly in the simulator—a situation probably not possible in a real airplane because of the heavy traffic in the New York area. Also, procedures at any airport that you are about to visit for the first time, or that you might have to divert to, can be practiced beforehand—very useful, and a great confidence builder when you are about to proceed into unfamiliar territory.

The fact that most ground trainers do not move, and experience only the normal earth-bound 1g gravity force, is not really a disadvantage for instrument training, since one of the aims of this training is to develop the ability to interpret the instruments using your eyes, and to disregard the other senses.

The ground trainer is also less expensive to operate than an airplane. This, and the many other advantages, make it an extremely valuable aid. But, it is still not an airplane!

Figure 1-7 The BATD (left) and the airplane (right).

Instrument flying in the airplane is the real thing! It is important psychologically to feel confident about your instrument flying ability in an actual airplane, so in-flight training is important. There will be more noise, more distractions, more duties and differing body sensations in the airplane. G-forces resulting from maneuvering will be experienced, as will turbulence, and these may serve to upset the inner senses. Despite the differences, however, the ground trainer can be used very successfully to prepare you for the real thing. Practice in it often to improve your instrument skills. Time in the real airplane can then be used more efficiently.

Attitude Instrument Flying

Power plus attitude equals performance.

The performance of an airplane in terms of flight path and airspeed is determined by a combination of the power set and the attitude selected. Airplane attitude has two aspects—pitch and bank, that is, nose position against the horizon, and bank angle. Pitch attitude is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the aircraft and the horizon. Bank attitude is the angle between the lateral axis of the airplane and the horizon.

Figure 1-8 Pitch attitude (left) and bank attitude (right).

For a given airplane weight and configuration, a particular attitude combined with a particular power setting will always result in a similar flight path through the air, be it a straight-and-level flight path, a climb, a descent or a turn. Any change of power and/or attitude will result in a change of flight path and/or airspeed.

The pilot selects pitch attitude using the elevator. In visual conditions, you refer to the external natural horizon. At any time (in cloud, at night, or in visual conditions) you can select a specific pitch attitude with reference to the attitude indicator (AI) on the instrument panel. In visual flight, the pitch attitude can be estimated from the position of the natural horizon in the windshield. In instrument flight, pitch attitude is selected with reference to the AI, using the position of the center dot of the wing bars relative to the horizon bar. The center dot represents the nose of the airplane.

The pilot selects bank attitude (bank angle) using the ailerons. In visual conditions, you refer to the angle made by the external natural horizon in the windshield. On instruments, you select bank angle on the attitude indicator, either by estimating the angle between the wingbars of the miniature airplane and the horizon bar, or from the sky pointer (or bank pointer) position on a graduated scale at the top of the AI.

Figure 1-9 Slightly low pitch attitude and wings level.

Figure 1-10 Nose-high pitch attitude and right bank.

Check the attitude indicator every few seconds.

Most of your attention during flight, both visual and on instruments, is concerned with achieving and holding a suitable attitude. A very important skill to develop when flying on instruments, therefore, is to check the attitude indicator every few seconds. There are other tasks to be performed, and there are other instruments to look at as well, but the eyes should always return fairly quickly to the AI.

To achieve the desired performance (in terms of flight path and airspeed), you must not only place the airplane in a suitable attitude with the flight controls, you must also apply suitable power with the throttle. Just because the airplane has a high pitch attitude does not mean that it will climb—it requires climb power as well as climb attitude to do this. With less power, it may not climb at all. Attitude flying is the name given to this skill of controlling the airplane’s flight path and airspeed with changes in attitude and power. The techniques used in attitude flying are the same whether flying visually or on instruments.

Pitch Attitude

Pitch attitude is not angle of attack.

The pitch attitude is the geometric relationship between the longitudinal axis of the airplane and the horizon. Pitch attitude refers to the airplane’s inclination to the horizontal, and not to where the airplane is actually going. The angle of attack, however, is the angle between the wing chord and the relative airflow. The angle of attack, therefore, is closely related to flight path.

Pitch attitude and angle of attack are different, but they are related in the sense that if the pitch attitude is raised, then the angle of attack is increased. Conversely, if the pitch attitude is lowered, then the angle of attack is decreased.

Figure 1-11 Pitch attitude and angle of attack are not the same.

An Airplane Flies Identically, In or Out of Clouds

The principles of flight do not change when an airplane enters clouds. The airplane will fly identically, and be controlled in the same way, both in clouds and in clear skies. The only difference in clouds is that the pilot loses reference to external visual cues, and must derive substitute information from the instrument panel.

When flying visually, you are already deriving a lot of information from the instruments. The exact altitude, for instance, cannot be determined from external features—you must look at the altimeter to positively know the altitude. Similarly, the precise heading is found on the heading indicator or the magnetic compass, and not by reference to external features. The precise airspeed can only be determined from the airspeed indicator. Also, to set a precise power, you must look (briefly) at the power indicator.

Coordination, in turns as well as in straight-and-level flight, is maintained precisely with reference to the coordination ball, in both visual and instrument flight, although the seat of your pants can also be a good guide.

The main change, it seems, when switching to instrument flying from visual flying, is to transfer attention from the natural horizon outside the cockpit to the horizon bar of the AI in the cockpit.

Instrument-rated pilots are no different from other pilots, except that they have acquired more knowledge, and can derive more information from the instrument panel. An altimeter can tell you more than just the current altitude—it also says something about the rate of change of altitude, and if the selected pitch attitude is correct for altitude to be maintained. Similarly, the heading indicator can provide heading information, but it also can tell you if the wings are banked. If the heading is changing and the ball is centered, then the wings must be banked.

The skill of instrument interpretation is not difficult, but it does take practice to acquire and maintain.

The skill of instrument interpretation (deriving all sorts of information from various instruments) will develop quickly during your instrument training. It is not difficult—it just takes practice. The airplane will fly exactly the same on instruments as when you are flying visually, and you will control it in the same way. The information required to do this is available on the instrument panel.

During instrument training, most maneuvers will be performed first in visual conditions, where the AI indications can be related to the appearance of the natural horizon in the windshield. After a satisfactory standard of visual flying is demonstrated, practice will occur in simulated instrument conditions—probably achieved by your instructor restricting your view of the outside world with a screen or hood.

Your view as the pilot, however, will remain unobstructed so that you can act as safety pilot, keeping a lookout for other aircraft, and monitoring the position of your airplane. You will concentrate on attitude flying using the instruments, interpreting their indications, and then responding with the controls. You should then be able to cope with actual instrument conditions.

A good understanding of each maneuver, and the ability to put it into practice in visual conditions, will speed up your instrument training. If you happen to be a little rusty, the first volume of this series—Flight School—contains detailed briefings for each visual maneuver.

Controlling the Airplane

During instrument flight, the airplane is flown using the normal controls according to the picture displayed on the instrument panel. From this picture, you will, with practice, know what control movements (elevator, aileron, rudder and throttle) are required to either maintain the picture as it is, or to change it.

When maneuvering the airplane, a suitable control sequence to follow (the same as in visual flight) is:

1. Visualize the desired new flight path and airspeed.

2. Select the attitude and the power required to achieve the desired performance by moving the controls, and then checking when the airplane has achieved the estimated attitude on the AI.

3. Hold the attitude on the AI, allowing the airplane to settle down into its new performance, and allowing the pressure instruments that experience some lag to catch up.

4. Make small adjustments to attitude and power until the actual performance equals the desired performance.

5. Trim (which is vital, if you are to achieve accurate and comfortable instrument flight). Heavy loads can be trimmed off earlier in the sequence to assist in control, if desired, but remember that the function of trim is to relieve control loads on the pilot, and not to change aircraft attitude.

Some helpful hints follow:

• Derive the required information from the relevant instrument—direction from the heading indicator, altitude from the altimeter, airspeed from the airspeed indicator.

• Respond to deviations from the desired flight path and/or airspeed. Use the AI as a control instrument, with power as required. For example, if you are 50 feet low on altitude, then increase the pitch attitude on the AI slightly and climb back up to altitude. Do not just accept steady deviations—it is just as easy to fly at 3,000 feet as it is to fly at 2,950 feet. A lot of instrument flying is in the mind and, in a sense, instrument flying is a test of character as well as of flying ability. Be as accurate as you can!

• Do not over-control. Avoid large, fast or jerky control movements that will probably result in continuous corrections, over-corrections and then re-corrections, which is often called pilot-induced oscillation (PIO). This can occur if attitude is changed without reference to the AI, or it might be caused by the airplane being out-of-trim, or possibly by a pilot who is fatigued or tense.

• Do not be distracted from a scan of the flight instruments for more than a few seconds at a time, even though other duties must be attended to, such as checklists, radio calls and navigational tasks.

• Relax. Easier said than done at the start, but it will come with experience.

Figure 1-12 Control sequence.

Sensory Illusions

Most people live in a 1g situation most of the time, with their feet on the ground. 1g means the force of gravity. Some variations to 1g, however, do occur in everyday life—for instance, when driving an automobile. Accelerating an automobile, hard braking, or turning on a flat bend will all produce g-forces on the body different to the 1g of gravity alone. Passengers with their eyes closed could perhaps detect this by bodily feel or with their sense of balance.

Sensory illusions can lead you astray.

A right turn on a flat road, for instance, could be detected by the feeling of being thrown to the left—but it might be more difficult to detect if the curve was perfectly banked for the particular speed. A straight road sloping to the left (and causing the passenger to lean to the left) might give the passenger the false impression that the automobile is turning right, even though it is in fact not turning at all.

Figure 1-13 Turning right—or left leaning?

The position sensing systems of the body, using nerves all over the body to transmit messages of feel and pressure to the brain, can be fooled in this and other ways.

The organs within the inner ear, used for balance and to detect accelerations, can also be deceived. For instance, if you are sitting in an automobile traveling around a suitably banked curve, the sensing system in your ears falsely interprets the g-force holding you firmly and comfortably in the seat as a vertical force, as if you were moving straight ahead rather than in a banked turn.

The inner ear organs also have other limitations, one being that a constant velocity is not detected, nor is a gradual change in velocity. For instance, you are sitting in a train and notice another train on the next track moving past your window. Is it moving forward? Are you moving backward? Are you both moving forward but at different speeds? It is sometimes difficult to tell.

False impressions of motion can also be caused by unusual g-forces—for instance, by rapid head motion, or by lowering the head. If you happen to drop your pencil while instrument flying, don’t just lower your eyes and lean down to look for it in one motion—take it carefully step by step to avoid any feeling of vertigo.

Because an airplane moves in three dimensions, there is the possibility to accelerate and decelerate in three dimensions, and this can lead to more complicated illusions. Pulling up into a steep climb, for example, will hold you tightly in your seat, which is exactly the same feeling as in a steep turn. Banking the airplane and pulling it into a turn will increase the pressure on the seat of your pants, which is a similar sensation to suddenly entering a climb. As well as your muscles, the balance organs of your inner ear may be sending false signals to your brain. Rolling into and out of a turn may be interpreted as a climb or descent (or vice versa) by your bodily feel. With your eyes closed, it is sometimes difficult to say which maneuver it is.

A sudden change from a climb to straight-and-level flight or a descent may cause an illusion of tumbling backward. A sudden acceleration in straight-and-level flight, or during the takeoff roll, may cause an illusion of being in a nose-up attitude.

Decelerating while in a turn to the left may give a false impression of a turn to the right. Be aware that your sense of balance and bodily feel can lead you astray in an airplane, especially with rapidly changing g-forces in maneuvers such as this.

The one sense that can resolve most of these illusions is sight. If the automobile passenger could see out, or if the pilot had reference to the natural horizon and landmarks, then the confusion, and the risk of not knowing your attitude in space (i.e., the risk of spatial disorientation), would be easily dispelled. A false horizon seen by the eyes, however, can be misleading—such as what a pilot might see flying above a sloping cloud formation, or on a dark night with ground lights and stars spread in certain patterns, or when the natural horizon is obscured. Trust the flight instruments!

Believe only what your eyes tell you when flying on instruments.

Unfortunately, in instrument flight you do not have reference to ground features, but you can still use your sense of sight to scan the instruments and obtain substitute information. Therefore, an important instruction to the budding instrument pilot is: believe your eyes and what the instruments tell you.

It is good airmanship to avoid any situation in flight, or prior to flight, that will affect your vision. While in clouds at night, for instance, turn off the strobe light if it is bothering you. If enough flashing light is reflected into the cockpit, the strobe can induce vertigo, or a sense of dizziness or whirling around. It is good practice to avoid strong white light, such as a flashlight, in the cockpit when night flying, so that the night adaptation of your eyes is not impaired. However, if flying in dark conditions with thunderstorms in the vicinity, turn the cockpit lights up to a bright setting to minimize the effects of nearby lightning flashes. If expecting to fly out of cloud tops and into bright sunlight, have your sunglasses handy. Protect your sight!

While sight is the most important sense, and must be protected at all costs, also make sure that you avoid anything that will affect your balance or position sensing systems.

Avoid alcohol, drugs (including smoking in the cockpit) and medication. Do not fly when ill or suffering with an upper respiratory infection (a cold). Do not fly when tired or fatigued. Do not fly with a cabin altitude higher than 10,000 feet MSL without using oxygen (or above 5,000 feet MSL at night). Avoid sudden head movements, and avoid lowering your head or turning around in the cockpit.

Despite all these don’ts, there is one very important do—do trust what your eyes tell you from the instruments.

The Instrument Rating Test

Detailed information of the standards required for you to obtain an instrument rating is included in 14 CFR (Part 61) and in a small publication entitled Airman Certification Standards (ACS), published by the FAA, reprinted by ASA in book form and available electronically. These standards change from time to time, so be sure that you are working from a current set of regulations and a current issue of the ACS book.

Review 1

Introduction to Instrument Flight

1. How can you avoid spatial disorientation when flying in IMC?

2. Flying visually in a clear, blue sky above a sloping cloud layer may not be as easy as it sounds. Why?

3. You are flying over a well-lit town situated on sloping ground. What sort of visual illusion could you experience?

4. How can you assist the adaptation of your eyes to darkness in the cockpit at night?

5. If you do not refer to your flight instruments, what sort of illusions or sensations can result from the following:

a. an abrupt change from climb to straight-and-level flight?

b. rapid acceleration during straight-and-level flight?

c. rapid acceleration during takeoff?

d. abrupt head movement?

Answers can be found in Appendix 2.

2

Instrument Scanning Techniques

The three fundamental skills in instrument flying are:

• instrument cross-check (or scan);

• instrument interpretation; and

• airplane control.

In this chapter, we look at suitable flight instrument scanning techniques that allow you to cross-check the instruments efficiently, and to extract and interpret information relevant to the flight path and performance of your airplane.

The performance of an airplane is, as always, determined by the power set and the attitude selected. In visual flying conditions, the external natural horizon is used as a reference when selecting pitch attitude and bank angle. The power indicator in the cockpit is only referred to occasionally, for instance when setting a particular power for cruise or for climb.

In instrument conditions, when the natural horizon cannot be seen, pitch attitude and bank angle information is still available to the pilot in the cockpit from the attitude indicator. The pitch attitude changes against the natural horizon are reproduced in miniature on the attitude indicator.

In straight-and-level flight, for instance, the wings of the miniature airplane should appear against the horizon line, while in a climb they should appear one or two bar widths above it.

Figure 2-1 The AI is the master instrument for pitch attitude and bank angle.

In a turn, the wing bars of the miniature airplane will bank along with the real airplane, while the horizon line remains horizontal. The center dot of the miniature airplane represents the airplane’s nose position relative to the horizon. Today, there are a variety of attitude indicators you might see. Some are referred to as a primary flight display (PFD). In any display, the principles remain the same: the center dot or center point’s position relative to the horizon indicates a climb or descent.

Scanning the Instruments

Scanning the instruments with your eyes, interpreting their indications and applying this information is a vital skill to develop if you are to become a good instrument pilot.

Power is selected with the throttle, and can be checked (if required) on the power indicator. Pitch attitude and bank angle are selected using the control column, with frequent reference to the attitude indicator. With both correct power and attitude set, the airplane will perform as expected. The attitude indicator and the power indicator, because they are used when controlling the airplane, are known as the control instruments.

The actual performance of the airplane, once its power and attitude have been set, can be cross-checked on what are known as the performance instruments—the altimeter for altitude, the airspeed indicator for airspeed, the heading indicator for direction, and so on.

A valuable instrument, important in its own right, is the clock or timer. Time is extremely important in instrument flying.

The timer is used:

• in holding patterns (which, for example, may be racetrack patterns with legs of 1 or 2 minutes duration);

• in timed turns (a 180° change of heading at standard-rate of 3° per second taking 60 seconds); and

• to measure time after passing certain radio fixes during instrument approaches (at 90 knots groundspeed, for instance, it would take 2 minutes to travel the 3 NM from a particular fix to the published missed approach point).

Figure 2-2 ASA flight timer.

Figure 2-3 Layout of a typical instrument panel: on the left, a PFD, on the right, an MFD.

Another area on the instrument panel contains the navigation instruments, which indicate the position of the airplane relative to selected navigation facilities. These NAVAIDs will be considered in detail later in your training, but the main ones are:

• VHF omni range (VOR) cockpit indicator, which indicates the airplane’s position relative to a selected course to or from the VOR ground station;

• automatic direction finder (ADF), which has a needle that points to a nondirectional beacon (NDB); and

• distance measuring equipment (DME) or VORTAC, which indicates the slant distance in nautical miles to the selected ground station.

Your main scan is across six basic instruments:

• ASI  • AI  • ALT

• TC  • HI  • VSI

Instrument scanning is an art that will develop naturally during your training, especially when you know what to look for. The main scan to develop initially is that of the six basic flight instruments, concentrating on the AI and radiating out to the others as required. Then as you move on to en route instrument flying, the navigation instruments will be introduced. Having scanned the instruments, interpreted the message that they contain, built up a picture of where the airplane is and where it is going, you can now control it in a meaningful way.

Scanning the Instruments in a Glass Cockpit

The introduction of computer screens into the cockpit, sometimes referred to as glass cockpits, has changed the look of the General Aviation flightdeck but not the function of the flight instruments. Both the traditional, round dial flight instruments and the glass instruments deliver the same information to the pilot, yet the presentation is different.

The traditional round dial placement of the instruments has been called the six pack. Figure 2-4 is a photograph of the six basic instruments; much thought went into where these instruments should be placed for maximum efficiency. The primary flight display (PFD) of a glass cockpit also has a six pack (see figure 2-5). Compare the traditional six pack in figure 2-4 with the PFD in figure 2-5.

Figure 2-4 The flight instruments.

Figure 2-5 Cirrus/Avidyne PFD.

On both panels the airplane attitude is displayed in the center. The round attitude gyro is top center in the most prominent position. The airplane’s attitude is also displayed prominently on the PFD with an illustration of the horizon crossing the entire screen. The round airspeed indicator is located on the upper left of the six pack. The airspeed indicator is also on the left of the PFD (figure 2-6). The airspeed displayed on the PFD is a vertical tape that uses the proper color-codes. The round altimeter and vertical speed indicator are on the right side of the traditional panel and they are also on the right side of the PFD (figures 2-7 and 2-8). The round heading indicator is placed at the lower center of the six pack and likewise the electronic image of a round heading indicator is located at the lower center of the PFD. The six pack remains virtually intact whether the presentation is mechanical round dials or an electronic computer screen.

Figure 2-6 PFD airspeed indicator with color codes.

Figure 2-7 PFD altimeter.

Figure 2-8 PFD vertical speed indicator.

Simple Scans

Heading

Directional information can be obtained from the heading indicator (HI) or from the magnetic compass. From the AI, the eyes can be moved straight down to the HI to absorb heading information, before returning to the AI. Each eye movement to obtain particular information is very simple, starting at the attitude indicator and radiating out to the relevant instrument, before returning to the AI.

Figure 2-9 A simple scan for heading.

Airspeed

Airspeed information is also very important, and this is easily checked by moving the eyes left from the AI to the airspeed indicator (ASI), before returning them to the AI.

Figure 2-10 A simple scan for airspeed.

Altitude

The altimeter is the only means of determining the precise altitude of the airplane, in visual as well as in instrument conditions. To obtain altitude information, the eyes can move from the AI toward the right where the altimeter is located, before moving back to the AI.

Vertical Speed

The rate of change of altitude, either as a rate of climb or a rate of descent in feet per minute, can be monitored on the vertical speed indicator (VSI) by moving the eyes from the AI diagonally down to the right to the VSI, before returning to the AI. The VSI, since it is often used in conjunction with the altimeter, is located directly beneath it on most instrument panels.

Figure 2-11 A simple scan for altitude.

Figure 2-12 A simple scan for vertical speed information.

Coordination

The AI, while it shows pitch attitude and bank angle directly, does not indicate coordination or yaw. Coordination (or balance) information can be obtained simply by moving the eyes from the attitude indicator diagonally down to the left to the inclinometer, to check that the ball is indeed being centered with rudder pressure. The eyes should then return to the AI.

Turning

A turn is entered using the AI to establish bank angle and the inclinometer ball to confirm coordination. Additional information on the turning rate is available from the turn coordinator once the bank angle is established. The normal rate of turn in instrument flying is 3° per second, known as standard-rate, and this is clearly marked on the turn coordinator (or turn-and-slip indicator).

Figure 2-13 A simple scan for coordination.

With these six basic flight instruments, plus the power indicator, it is possible to fly the airplane very accurately and comfortably without any external visual reference, provided the instruments are scanned efficiently. You control the airplane in response to the information derived from them. The better your scan, the more rapidly you get information, and the better you control the aircraft in instrument conditions.

Figure 2-14 A simple scan for turn rate.

Control and Performance

Control the airplane to achieve the desired performance.

The attitude selected on the AI (by means of the flight controls) and the power set on the power indicator (by means of the throttle) determine the performance of the airplane, hence these two instruments are known as the control instruments.

Figure 2-15 The control instruments are used to select attitude and power.

The attitude indicator is located centrally on the instrument panel directly in front of the pilot, so that any changes in attitude can be readily seen. Because continual reference to the power indicator is not required, it is situated slightly away from the main group of flight instruments, easy to scan occasionally, but not in the main field of view.

The other flight instruments are performance instruments that display how the airplane is performing (as a result of the power and attitude selected) in terms of:

• altitude, on the altimeter and VSI;

• direction, on the HI and turn coordinator; and

• airspeed, on the ASI.

Figure 2-16 The pitch instruments.

Changes in pitch attitude are shown directly on the AI, and the change in aircraft performance is reflected on the altimeter, VSI and ASI.

Changes in bank angle are shown directly on the AI, and are reflected on the turn coordinator and the heading indicator. This coordination or finesse of flight is shown by the coordination ball. In other words: the bank angle is an input; the turn coordinator is an output—it indicates the resulting rate of turn.

Figure 2-17 Performance is displayed on the performance instruments.

Figure 2-18 The bank instruments.

The Selective Radial Scan

The attitude indicator is the master flight instrument.

Of the six main flight instruments, the attitude indicator is the master instrument. It gives you a direct and immediate picture of pitch attitude and bank angle. It will be the one most frequently referred to (at least once every few seconds in most stages of flight). The eyes can be directed selectively toward the other instruments to derive relevant information from them as required, before being returned to the AI. This eye movement radiating out and back to selected instruments is commonly known as the selective radial scan.

For instance, when climbing with full power selected, the estimated climb pitch attitude is held on the attitude indicator, with subsequent reference to the airspeed indicator to confirm that the selected pitch attitude is indeed correct. If the ASI indicates an airspeed that is too low, then lower the pitch attitude on the AI (say by a half bar width or by one bar width), allow a few seconds for the airspeed to settle, and then check the ASI again.