Microbes and Microbial Biotechnology for Green Remediation

Microbes and Microbial Biotechnology for Green Remediation provides a comprehensive account of sustainable microbial treatment technologies. The research presented highlights the significantly important microbial species involved in remediation, the mechanisms of remediation by various microbes, and suggestions for future improvement of bioremediation technology.

The introduction of contaminants, due to rapid urbanization and anthropogenic activities, into the environment causes unsteadiness and distress to the physicochemical systems, including living organisms. Hence, there is an immediate global demand for the diminution of such contaminants and xenobiotics which can otherwise adversely affect the living organisms.

Over time, microbial remediation processes have been accelerated to produce better, eco-friendlier, and more biodegradable products for complete dissemination of these xenobiotic compounds. The advancements in microbiology and biotechnology lead to the launch of microbial biotechnology as a separate area of research and contributed dramatically to the development of the areas such as agriculture, environment, biopharmaceutics, and fermented foods. Microbes stand as an imperative, efficient, green, and economical alternative to conventional treatment technologies. The proposed book provides cost-effective and sustainable alternatives.

This book serves as a reference for graduate and postgraduate students in environmental biotechnology and microbiology as well as researchers and scientists working in the laboratories and industries involved in research related to microbiology, environmental biotechnology, and allied research.

• Discusses important microbial activities, such as biofertilizer, biocontrol, biosorption, biochar, biofilm, biodegradation, bioremediation, bioclogging, and quorum sensing
• Covers all the advanced microbial bioremediation techniques which are finding their way from the laboratory to the field for revival of the degraded agro-ecosystems
• Examines the role of bacteria, fungi, microalgae, Bacillus sp., Prosopis juliflora, Deinococcus radiodurans, Pseudomonas, methanotrophs, siderophores, and PGPRs as the biocontrol and green remediator agents for soil sustainability

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Jun 14, 2022
• ISBN: 9780323904537

Book preview

Front Cover for Microbes and Microbial Biotechnology for Green Remediation - 1st edition - by Junaid Ahmad Malik

Microbes and Microbial Biotechnology for Green Remediation

Edited by

Junaid Ahmad Malik

Department of Zoology, Government Degree College, Bijbehara, Kashmir (J&K), India

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

List of contributors

Preface

Part I: Microbial bioremediation: an introduction

Chapter 1. Microbial biotechnology: an introduction

Abstract

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Role of microbes in environment

1.3 Role in enhancing enzyme activity

1.4 Role in biosurfactants

1.5 Role in enhancing antimicrobial properties

1.6 Role in food production

1.7 Role in biofertilizers and agroecosystems

1.8 Genetically engineered microorganisms

1.9 Conclusion

References

Chapter 2. Bioremediation of soil: an overview

Abstract

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Concept of bioremediation

2.3 Steps involved in bioremediation

2.4 Bioremediation of different contaminants

2.5 Some successful stories

2.6 Constraints

2.7 Future prospects

2.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 3. Microbial interaction with metals and metalloids

Abstract

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Effect of metals on microbes

3.3 Mobilization of heavy metals

3.4 The resistance of sequestered heavy metal by microorganisms

3.5 Immobilization

3.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 4. Emerging issues and challenges for microbes-assisted remediation

Abstract

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Major environmental pollutants and their impact

4.3 Microbe-assisted remediation of pollutants

4.4 Conclusion and future prospects

References

Part II: Microbes for sustainable agriculture and green remediation

Chapter 5. Microbe-mediated biotic and abiotic stress tolerance in crop plants

Abstract

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Physiological and molecular response of plants against various agricultural stresses

5.3 Plant–microbe interaction: plant growth-promoting microbes-assisted stress tolerance

5.4 Designing crop for stress tolerance: a transgenic approach

5.5 Plant growth promoting bacteria and arbuscular mycorhizal fungi: biological and eco-friendly tools in stress mitigation

5.6 Practical implementation stress-tolerant microbes

5.7 Conclusion and way forward

References

Further reading

Chapter 6. Promoting crop growth with symbiotic microbes in agro-ecosystems—I

Abstract

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Different classes of symbiotic microbes

6.3 Effect of symbiotic microbes in nutrient availability and their mechanism of action

6.4 Effect of symbionts in controlling phytopathogens

6.5 Application of symbiotic microflora on different crop groups

6.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 7. Promoting crop growth with symbiotic microbes in agro-ecosystems—II

Abstract

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Plant–microbe symbiotic associations

7.3 Symbiotic N2-fixing microbes in ecosystem

7.4 Microbes and environment

7.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 8. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria: an alternative for NPK fertilizers

Abstract

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Common NPK fertilizers

8.3 Role of NPK fertilizers in plant growth

8.4 Effects of use of NPK fertilizers on the environment

8.5 Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria—phylogeny and examples

8.6 Effects of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria on plant growth

8.7 Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria in restoring and stabilizing soil fertility

8.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 9. Biochar and its potential use for bioremediation of contaminated soils

Abstract

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Processes entailing biochar concoction

9.3 Performance attributes of biochar

9.4 Heavy metal sources and their toxic effects

9.5 Utilization of biochar for soil HM decontamination

9.6 Heavy metal remediation mechanism

9.7 Obstacles in biochar exertion in soil for HM remediation

9.8 Risks linked with biochar utilization in soil

9.9 Recommendations

9.10 Conclusion

Acknowledgment

Conflict of Interest

References

Chapter 10. Microbial interaction of biochar and its application in soil, water and air

Abstract

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Characteristics of biochar

10.3 Production of biochar

10.4 Biochar–microbial interaction

10.5 Application of biochar

10.6 Limitations

10.7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Conflict of interest

References

Chapter 11. Role of biofilms in bioremediation

Abstract

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Concept of biofilm

11.3 Types of contaminants remediated through biofilms

11.4 Role of extracellular polysaccharide in biofilm

11.5 Microorganisms used for the formation of biofilm

11.6 Factors affecting the formation of biofilm

11.7 Adverse effect of microbial biofilm

11.8 Applications of biofilms in bioremediation

11.9 Limitations of bioremediation with the use of biofilm

11.10 Future perspectives

11.11 Conclusion

References

Chapter 12. Microalgal adsorption of carbon dioxide: a green approach

Abstract

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Environmental effects of CO2 emissions

12.3 Sources of CO2 emission

12.4 CO2 capturing technologies

12.5 Biological methods of CO2 capture

12.6 Cultivation methods

12.7 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 13. Photosynthesis in bioremediation

Abstract

13.1 Photosynthesis fundamentals

13.2 Pollutant-induced perturbations

13.3 Conclusion

References

Chapter 14. Lipase and lactic acid bacteria for biodegradation and bioremediation

Abstract

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Microbial degradation

14.3 Lactic acid bacteria

14.4 Hydrolytic enzymes in degradation

14.5 Lipase

14.6 Sources of microbial lipases

14.7 Production and characterization of lipases

14.8 Purification of lipase from LAB

14.9 Hydrolysis mechanism

14.10 Kinetic model of lipase

14.11 Lipase in bioremediation

14.12 Degradation mechanism

14.13 Sustainable development

14.14 Lipases in biodegradation of emerging contaminants

14.15 Product in market and research

14.16 Conclusion

References

Further readings

Chapter 15. Unique extremophilic Bacillus: their application in plant growth promotion and sustainable agriculture

Abstract

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Phylogeny and distribution of extremophilic Bacillus sp

15.3 Plant growth-promoting activity of extremophilic Bacilli under various abiotic stresses

15.4 Biocontrol activity of the extremophilic Bacillus sp

15.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 16. The role of white rot fungi in bioremediation

Abstract

16.1 Introduction

16.2 The role of enzymes in biodegradation by the white rot fungus

16.3 Meaning of bioremediation

16.4 Different methods of decontamination by white rot fungus

16.5 Different types of bioremediation techniques

16.6 Differences between in situ and ex situ bioremediation techniques

16.7 Factors that determine the effectiveness of bioremediation

16.8 Merits of bioremediation technique

16.9 Limitations of bioremediation

16.10 Advantages of white rot fungus application in bioremediation over bacteria

16.11 The mechanism of bioremediation with lignin modifying enzyme-producing white rot fungi

16.12 Other potential application of white rot fungi

16.13 Benefits of bioremediation

16.14 Basic steps to grow white rot fungi species on suitable carrier/substrate

16.15 Conclusion

References

Chapter 17. Biodiversity and application of native arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal species with rhizobacteria on growth and yield enhancements in cowpea and aromatic black rice from North Eastern India

Abstract

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Materials and methods

17.3 Results

17.4 Discussion

17.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Conflicts of interests

References

Chapter 18. Bacterial retting agents: sustainable bioremediation of bast fibers farming strains

Abstract

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Bast fiber composition and retting

18.3 Existing retting practice and their constraints

18.4 Bast fiber bioretting agents from bacteria

18.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 19. Streptomyces sp.: a feasible biocontrol agent for sustainable management of crop diseases

Abstract

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Isolation of Streptomyces sp

19.3 Morphological characterization of Streptomyces

19.4 Streptomyces sp. identification and characterization

19.5 Molecular identification

19.6 Antifungal properties of Streptomyces sp. against pathogens

19.7 Secondary metabolites production

19.8 Effect of secondary metabolites against other pathogens

19.9 Growth promotion studies of actinomycetes Streptomyces

19.10 Efficacy of actinomycetes Streptomyces under in vitro studies

19.11 Conclusion

References

Part III: Emerging contaminants and their remediation

Chapter 20. Microbial-assisted remediation of food processing industry waste

Abstract

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Type of waste generated by food processing industries

20.3 Fruit and vegetable processing industry

20.4 Sugar industry

20.5 Dairy industry

20.6 Meat industry

20.7 Beverage industry

20.8 Conclusion and future trends

References

Chapter 21. Role of biosorption technology in removing cadmium from water and soil

Abstract

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Environmental pollution by heavy metals

21.3 Effects on human health and the environment

21.4 Importance of cadmium removal

21.5 Biosorption

21.6 Biosorbents

21.7 Desorption

21.8 Cadmium biosorption in liquid matrices

21.9 Cadmium biosorption in soils

21.10 Biosorption models that explain the biosorbate–biosorbent equilibrium

21.11 General conclusions

Conflicts of interest

References

Chapter 22. Role of biosurfactants on microbial degradation of oil-contaminated soils

Abstract

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Microbial surfactant

22.3 Crude oil as a soil contaminant

22.4 Bioremediation to eliminate contaminants from the soil

22.5 Impact of surfactants on the distribution of soil pollutants

22.6 Biosurfactants for remediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated soil

22.7 Inhibition of physical contact between petroleum hydrocarbons and bacteria

22.8 Impact of biosurfactants in the bioavailability of organic hydrophobic compounds

22.9 Impact of biosurfactants on soil desorption and solubilization of aged hydrocarbons

22.10 Washing of the soil

22.11 Microbial remediation of oil

22.12 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 23. Bioclogging and microbial enhanced oil recovery

Abstract

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Background on microbial enhanced oil recovery

23.3 Challenges and opportunities of microbial enhanced oil recovery

23.4 Bioclogging for microbial enhanced oil recovery mechanisms

23.5 Applications of bioclogging components in microbial enhanced oil recovery

23.6 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Conflicts of interests

References

Chapter 24. Microbial degradation of phenolic compounds

Abstract

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Phenolic compounds degradation: methods and mechanisms

24.3 Phenolic compounds biodegradation

24.4 Kinetic studies and models of phenols biodegradation

24.5 Other methods for phenols biodegradation

24.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 25. Microbial biofilm-mediated bioremediation of heavy metals: a sustainable approach

Abstract

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Microbial biofilm and heavy metal bioremediation

25.3 Chemotaxis: role in biofilm formation and heavy metal bioremediation

25.4 Factors affecting microbial heavy metal remediation

25.5 Microbial bioremediation mechanism

25.6 Bioremediation by genetically engineered microorganisms

25.7 Conclusion

Conflict of interest

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 26. Arsenic accumulating and transforming bacteria: isolation, potential use, effect, and transformation in agricultural soil

Abstract

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Arsenic and its characteristics

26.3 Area contaminated with arsenic

26.4 Causes of arsenic contamination

26.5 Arsenic-accumulating and transforming organisms

26.6 Arsenic-resistant gene with mode of action

26.7 Arsenic-resistant bacteria: isolation and identification

26.8 Arsenic accumulating and transforming bacteria: potential use in bioremediation

26.9 Effect of arsenic accumulation in agriculture

26.10 Effect of arsenic accumulation in plants

26.11 Conclusion

References

Chapter 27. Microbial remediation of hexavalent chromium from the contaminated soils

Abstract

27.1 Introduction

27.2 Chromium chemistry and sources

27.3 Chromium toxicity and its mechanisms

27.4 Modes of remediation

27.5 Microbial remediation of chromium contaminated soil

27.6 Mechanisms of microbial remediation of chromium

27.7 Biochar assisted microbial remediation of chromium

27.8 Challenges

27.9 Conclusion

References

Chapter 28. Microbial bioremediation of polythene and plastics: a green sustainable approach

Abstract

28.1 Introduction

28.2 Effects of plastic and polythene pollution on the environment

28.3 Role of microbes in biodegradation

28.4 Green approach for degradation of polythene and plastics

28.5 Factors involved in microbial degradation of plastic and polythene

28.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 29. Biodegradation of microplastics and synthetic polymers in agricultural soils

Abstract

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Microplastics

29.3 Synthetic polymers

29.4 Key steps in the biodegradation of polymers in agriculture soil

29.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 30. Microalgae: a promising tool for plastic degradation

Abstract

30.1 Introduction: plastics and the environment

30.2 Plastic and its types

30.3 Types of plastics based on degradability

30.4 Categorizing plastics based on size

30.5 Plastic and its degradation

30.6 Microalgae and environmental sustainability

30.7 Microlgae for plastic degradation

30.8 Analytical techniques used for monitoring and studying biodegradation

30.9 Conclusion

References

Chapter 31. Emerging issues and challenges for plastic bioremediation

Abstract

31.1 Introduction

31.2 The plastics we know and use

31.3 Bioremediation and influencing factors

31.4 Recent advances in microbial bioremediation

31.5 Challenges in microbial degradation of plastic

31.6 Conclusions and scope for future work

References

Chapter 32. Usage of microbes for the degradation of paint contaminated soil and water

Abstract

32.1 Introduction

32.2 History

32.3 Pollution by paints

32.4 Bacterial bioremediation of paint contaminated air and soil

32.5 Bacterial degradation of paint contaminated water

32.6 Fungal bioremediation of paint contamination

32.7 Algal bioremediation of paint contamination

32.8 Genetically modified species in bioremediation

32.9 Conclusion

References

Chapter 33. Microbial degradation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products

Abstract

33.1 Introduction

33.2 Pharmaceuticals—pharmaceuticals and personal care products’ effects and their repercussions on human health and the environment

33.3 The need for degradation

33.4 Microbes as the potential degrading agents of pharmaceuticals and pharmaceuticals and personal care products

33.5 Conclusion

33.6 Future research and perspectives

References

Chapter 34. Microbial remediation of mercury-contaminated soils

Abstract

34.1 Introduction

34.2 The global mercury cycle

34.3 Microbial-mediated reactions of mercury compounds in soil

34.4 Microbial treatment of mercury in soil

34.5 Impact of mercury toxicity on microorganism

34.6 Benefits and limitations of microbial remediation and future implications

34.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 35. Mercury pollution and its bioremediation by microbes

Abstract

35.1 Introduction

35.2 Sources of mercury in the environment

35.3 Microbial bioremediation

35.4 Conclusion

References

Chapter 36. Role of bacterial nanocellulose polymer composites on the adsorption of organic dyes from wastewater

Abstract

36.1 Introduction

36.2 Cellulose

36.3 Nanocellulose as an adsorbent

36.4 Polymer grafting of nanocellulose

36.5 Synthesis and design of bacterial nanocellulose

36.6 Surface functionalization of bacterial nanocellulose

36.7 Life cycle assessment of nanocellulose/bacterial nanocellulose

36.8 Applications of bacterial nanocellulose

36.9 Features of nanocellulose for wastewater treatment

36.10 Grafting of nanocellulose for wastewater treatment

36.11 Bacterial nanocellulose in organic dye adsorption

36.12 Physical methods to eliminate organic dyes from wastewater

36.13 Chemical methods used to remove dyes from wastewater

36.14 Biological methods

36.15 Bacterial nanocellulose and its composites in wastewater treatment

36.16 Future directions

36.17 Conclusion

References

Chapter 37. Environmental risk assessment of fluoride (F) contaminated soil on Prosopis juliflora seedlings using biochemical and molecular parameters

Abstract

37.1 Introduction

37.2 Methodology

37.3 Results

37.4 Discussion

37.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 38. Arsenic toxicity and its clinical manifestations in Murshidabad district with some potential remedial measures

Abstract

38.1 Introduction

38.2 Extent of arsenic toxicity in Murshidabad district

38.3 Arsenic toxicity among the residents of Murshidabad district

38.4 Clinical manifestations of arsenic toxicity in Asanpara village of Murshidabad district: a case study

38.5 Remedial measures taken by private and government organizations in Murshidabad district to combat arsenic toxicity

38.6 Critical review of the prevalent methods for arsenic removal

38.7 Innovative methods of arsenic removal in Murshidabad district

38.8 Bioremediation—a tool to combat arsenic toxicity

38.9 Bioremediation—in action

38.10 Conclusion

Acknowledgment

Funding

Conflicts of interest

References

Chapter 39. Application of Deinococcus radiodurans for bioremediation of radioactive wastes

Abstract

39.1 Introduction

39.2 Applications of radioactive isotopes, radiation in medical science and other industrial sectors

39.3 Health hazards imposed by radionuclides

39.4 Conventional methods of radioactive waste treatment

39.5 Bioremediation of radionuclides

39.6 Colonization of microbes in radioactive environment

39.7 Deinococcus radiodurans

39.8 Mechanism of radiation resistance by Deinococcus radiodurans

39.9 Application of D. radiodurans for bioremediation of radionuclides

39.10 Bioremediation of mixed waste containing radionuclides and organic solvents

39.11 Role of D. radiodurans as a biosensor

39.12 Conclusion

References

Chapter 40. Microbial bioremediation and biodegradation of radioactive waste contaminated sites

Abstract

40.1 Introduction

40.2 Types of nuclear wastes

40.3 Sources of radioactive waste

40.4 Impact of radioactive waste on environment and living organisms

40.5 Microbial bioremediation of radionuclides

40.6 Emerging bioremediation technologies of radionuclides

40.7 Genetically modified organisms bioremediation and omics integrated bioremediation

40.8 Challenges and limitations of microbial bioremediation and degradation of radionuclides

40.9 Conclusion

References

Part IV: Recent trends and tools

Chapter 41. New insights of cellulosic ethanol production from lignocellulosic feedstocks

Abstract

41.1 Introduction

41.2 Pretreatment classification

41.3 Physical pretreatment

41.4 Biological pretreatment

41.5 Other delignification treatments

41.6 New pretreatment strategies

41.7 Influencing factors for the development of bioethanol

41.8 Challenges

41.9 Conclusions

References

Chapter 42. Mycorrhizal product glomalin: a proficient agent of nutrient sequestration and soil fertility restoration under jeopardized agroecosystem

Abstract

42.1 Introduction

42.2 Origin and source of glomalin

42.3 Chemical nature and characteristics of glomalin

42.4 Glomalin extraction from soil

42.5 Role of glomalin in making good soil aggregates

42.6 Role of AMF product glomalin in improving soil structure and gaining crop yield and productivity

42.7 Factors affecting glomalin concentration in soil

42.8 Influence of conservation agriculture on glomalin

42.9 Conclusion

References

Chapter 43. Microbial quorum sensing systems: new and emerging trends of biotechnology in bioremediation

Abstract

43.1 Introduction

43.2 What is quorum sensing

43.3 Role of quorum sensing

43.4 Mechanism of quorum sensing

43.5 Probable autoinducers of quorum sensing

43.6 Quorum quenching

43.7 Quorum sensing system: new strategy of biotechnology in bioremediation

43.8 Controversy

43.9 Conclusion

43.10 Future scope

References

Chapter 44. Metagenomics: a genomic tool for monitoring microbial communities during bioremediation

Abstract

44.1 Introduction

44.2 Microbes—the stupendous organisms

44.3 Environmental systems biology

44.4 Metatranscriptomics and metaproteomics

44.5 Metagenomics

44.6 Metagenomic bioremediation

44.7 Metagenomic bioremediation of contaminated environment

44.8 Bioinformatics tools—metagenomic bioremediation

44.9 Conclusion

References

Chapter 45. Nanobioremediation: a novel application of green-nanotechnology in environmental cleanup

Abstract

45.1 Introduction

45.2 Nanotechnology: a promising approach in bioremediation

45.3 Green synthesis of nanomaterials for bioremediation

45.4 Conclusion and future prospects

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 46. Nanotechnology and green nano-synthesis for nano-bioremediation

Abstract

46.1 Introduction

46.2 Bioremediation of environmental pollutants

46.3 Pollutant removal by conventional techniques

46.4 Nanobioremediation: a promising strategy for pollutants removal

46.5 Effects of natural nanoparticles and synthesized nanoparticles (by green methods) on biodegradation of pollutants

46.6 Natural and green-synthesized nanoparticles implemented in nanobioremediation

46.7 Conclusion

References

Index

Copyright

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Notices

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Dedication

This book is dedicated to

My Abajan (father), Gh. Rasool Malik

A strong and gentle soul who taught me to trust Allah and believe in hard work. I thank him for earning an honest living for us and for supporting and encouraging me to believe in myself.

My Umi G (mother), Gulshana

For being my first teacher and for her prayers, care, and sacrifices for educating and preparing me for my future.

My loving Jiya (wife), Gulnaz

For continuously providing her moral, spiritual, and emotional support throughout the project despite many obstacles in life.

Above all, to the Great Almighty Allah, the author of knowledge and wisdom for His countless love and giving me a healthy life and strength.

List of contributors

Kannan Aarthy,     Faculty of Biology, Narayana e-techno School, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India

Sitharanjithan Abirami,     NEET Faculty in Biology, CEOA Matriculation Higher Secondary School, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India

Mohammed Al-Jawasim,     Department of Environmental Science, College of Science, University of Al-Qadisiyah, Diwaniyah, Iraq

Alaa Al-Khalaf,     Department of Environment, College of Environmental Science, Al-Qasim Green University, Babylon, Iraq

Sathaiah Baby,     Faculty of Biology, Narayana e-techno School, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India

Keerthana Balasundaram,     Department of Entomology, Annamalai University, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India

Sendilkumar Balasundram,     School of Allied Health Sciences, Vinayaka Missions Research Foundation (Deemed to be University), Salem, Tamil Nadu, India

Sekhar Bandyopadhyay,     Department of Plant Pathology, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India

Tandrima Banerjee,     Department of Chemical Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur, West Bengal, India

Ankit Banik,     Department of Biotechnology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India

Abhishek Basu,     Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Sripat Singh College, Affiliated to University of Kalyani, Jiaganj, Murshidabad, West Bengal, India

Pratik M. Battacharya,     Department of Plant Pathology, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India

Mayuri Bhatia,     Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Kandi, Telangana, India

Prateek Madhab Bhattacharya,     Department of Plant Pathology, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India

Suchandrima Bhowmik,     Department of Microbiology, St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Trinath Biswal,     Department of Chemistry, VSS University of Technology, Burla, Odisha, India

Sayan Biswas,     Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Sripat Singh College, Affiliated to University of Kalyani, Jiaganj, Murshidabad, West Bengal, India

Vijaya Geetha Bose,     Department of Biotechnology, Rajalakshmi Engineering College (Autonomous), (Affiliated to Anna University), Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Priyanka Bumbra,     Department of Environmental Science, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Haryana, India

M. Subhosh Chandra,     Department of Microbiology, Yogi Vemana University, Kadapa, Andhra Pradesh, India

Murugesan Chandrasekaran,     Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Sejong University, Seoul, Korea

Soumi Chatterjee,     Department of Biotechnology, St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Elsa Cherian,     Department of Food Technology, Saintgits College of Engineering, Kottayam, Kerala, India

Kartikeya Choudhary

Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India

MS Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Shoolini University of Biotechnology and Management Sciences, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India

Ankita Dutta Chowdhury,     Department of Microbiology, St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Apurba Kumar Chowdhury,     Department of Plant Pathology, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India

Johnson Retnaraj Samuel Selvan Christyraj,     Regeneration and Stem Cell Biology Lab, Centre for Molecular and Nanomedical Sciences, International Research Centre, Sathyabama Institute of Science & Technology (Deemed to be University), Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Rajeswari Das,     Department of Soil Science, School of Agriculture, GIET University, Gunupur, Rayagada, Odisha, India

Sayan Das,     Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Sripat Singh College, Affiliated to University of Kalyani, Jiaganj, Murshidabad, West Bengal, India

Anamika Debnath,     Department of Plant Pathology, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India

Anoop Kumar Devedee

Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India

Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Science, Deen Dayal Upadhyay Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

Ahila P. Devi,     Department of Plant Pathology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

Mahima Dey,     Department of Biotechnology, St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Bikram Dhara,     Department of Microbiology, St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Samuel Okere Echezonachi,     Department of Crop Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

Bashir Ah Ganai,     Centre of Research for Development, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India

Harsha Ganesan,     Human Molecular Genetics and Stem Cell Laboratory, Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Biology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

Subbaraju Sree Gayathri,     Department of Microbiology, The Madura College, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India

Arvind George,     Department of Life Sciences, Christ University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Ghanshyam,     Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bihar, India

Jaydip Ghosh,     Department of Microbiology, St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Puja Ghosh,     Department of Biotechnology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India

L Gnansing Jesumaharaja,     Department of Plant Pathology, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India

Jaffer Mohiddin Gooty,     Universidad Fuerzas de las Armadas-ESPE, Ciencia De la Vidad y Agricultura, Sede Santo Domingo, Santo Domingo, Ecuador

Mir Zahoor Gul,     Department of Biochemistry, University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

Kuldeep Gupta,     Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, India

Shahnawaz Hassan,     Department of Environmental Science, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India

Mohammad Munir Hossain

Biotechnology Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

Bangladesh Jute Research Institute, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Nazmul Huda,     Faculty of Biological Science, Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Islamic University, Kushtia, Bangladesh

T. Jayasree Joshi,     Department of Food Technology, Saintgits College of Engineering, Kottayam, Kerala, India

Madesh Jeevanandam,     Department of Biochemistry, PSG College of Arts and Sciences, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

Gnanasing L. Jesumaharaja,     Department of Plant Pathology, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India

Ananthi Jeyaraman,     Department of Biotechnology, Lady Doak College, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India

Jacob Thomas Joshi,     Department of Life Sciences, Christ University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

S. Kameswaran,     Department of Botany, Vikrama Simhapuri University, PG Centre, Kavali, Andhra Pradesh, India

Karthik Kannan,     Center for Advanced Materials, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar

Nitika Kapoor,     PG Department of Botany, Hans Raj Mahila MahaVidyalaya, Jalandhar, Punjab, India

Subbiahanadar Chelladurai Karthikeyan,     Regeneration and Stem Cell Biology Lab, Centre for Molecular and Nanomedical Sciences, International Research Centre, Sathyabama Institute of Science & Technology (Deemed to be University), Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Jasleen Kaur,     Department of Botany, Dyal Singh College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India

M.H. Kavitha,     Teejan Beverages Ltd, Thrissur, Kerala, India

Surajit Khalko,     Department of Plant Pathology, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India

Mohammed Latif Khan

Forest Ecology and Eco-genomics Laboratory, Dr. Harisingh Gaur Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, India

Department of Botany, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, India

Azmerry Khanom,     Faculty of Biological Science, Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Islamic University, Kushtia, Bangladesh

Babita Khosla,     Department of Environmental Science, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Haryana, India

Ramyakrishna Koka,     Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal, India

Vijay Kumar,     Biotechnology Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

Parameswaran Kiruthika Lakshmi,     Department of Microbiology, The Madura College, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India

Jitender Singh Laura,     Department of Environmental Science, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Haryana, India

Wendie Levasseur,     Université Paris-Saclay, CentraleSupélec, Laboratoire de Génie des Procédés et Matériaux, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Centre Européen de Biotechnologie et de Bioéconomie (CEBB), Pomacle, France

Sungey Naynee Sánchez Llaguno,     Universidad Fuerzas de las Armadas-ESPE, Ciencia De la Vidad y Agricultura, Sede Santo Domingo, Santo Domingo, Ecuador

A. Madhavi,     Department of Microbiology, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapuramu, Andhra Pradesh, India

Debapriya Maitra,     Department of Microbiology, St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Junaid Ahmad Malik,     Department of Zoology, Government Degree College, Bijbehara, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Debjani Mandal,     Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Sripat Singh College, Affiliated to University of Kalyani, Jiaganj, Murshidabad, West Bengal, India

Manabendra Mandal,     Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, India

Rudrajit Mandal,     Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Sripat Singh College, Affiliated to University of Kalyani, Jiaganj, Murshidabad, West Bengal, India

Srinivasulu Mandala,     Department of Biotechnology, Yogi Vemana University, Kadapa, Andhra Pradesh, India

Balakumaran Manickam Dakshinamoorthi,     Department of Biotechnology, Dwaraka Doss Goverdhan Doss Vaishnav College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

M.V. Manohar,     Department of Biochemistry, JSS Medical College, Mysore, Karnataka, India

Uzma Manzoor,     Department of Agricultural Sciences, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

Melinda Grace Rossan Mathews,     Regeneration and Stem Cell Biology Lab, Centre for Molecular and Nanomedical Sciences, International Research Centre, Sathyabama Institute of Science & Technology (Deemed to be University), Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Shivam Maurya,     Department of Plant Pathology, S.K.N Agriculture University, Jobner, Rajasthan, India

Selvaraj Meenakshi,     Faculty of Biology, VMJ School, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India

Mehjabeen,     Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bihar, India

Arup Kumar Mitra,     Department of Microbiology, St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Lakshmi Mohan,     Department of Food Technology, Saintgits College of Engineering, Kottayam, Kerala, India

Juan Alejandro Neira Mosquera

Universidad Fuerzas de las Armadas-ESPE, Ciencia De la Vidad y Agricultura, Sede Santo Domingo, Santo Domingo, Ecuador

Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo,Facultad de Ciencias de la Industria y Producción, Santo Domingo, Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas, Ecuador

Jaison Mugunthan,     Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal, India

Siddhartha Mukherjee,     Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal, India

Thangavelu Muthukumar,     Department of Botany, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

Shilpi Nagar,     Department of Environmental Studies, University of Delhi, Delhi, India

Abhijit Nandi,     Department of Plant Pathology, UBKV, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India

Kousik Nandi,     Department of Agronomy, UBKV, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India

Panchi Rani Neog,     Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, India

Padmini Padmanabhan,     Department of Bio-Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

Amogha G. Paladhi,     Department of Life Sciences, Christ University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Mohineeta Pandey,     Department of Botany, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India

Radha Raman Pandey,     Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Imphal, Manipur, India

Sudhir Kumar Pandey,     Department of Botany, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India

Dinesh Panwar,     Chaudhary Charan Singh University Meerut, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India

Ali Partovinia,     Biorefinery Engineering Department, Faculty of New Technologies Engineering, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

Ruby Patel,     Institute of Forest Biodiversity (Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education), Hyderabad, Telangana, India

Sonika Phian,     Molecular Biology and Genomics Laboratory, Ramjas College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India

Victor Pozzobon,     Université Paris-Saclay, CentraleSupélec, Laboratoire de Génie des Procédés et Matériaux, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Centre Européen de Biotechnologie et de Bioéconomie (CEBB), Pomacle, France

Madhusmita Pradhan,     Department of Microbiology, Odisha University of Agriculture & Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

Satya Narayan Prasad,     Department of Botany, Plant Physiology & Biochemistry, RPCAU, Pusa, Bihar, India

Preeti,     Chaudhary Charan Singh University Meerut, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India

Asif Qureshi,     Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Kandi, Telangana, India

M. Mizanur Rahman,     Faculty of Biological Science, Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Islamic University, Kushtia, Bangladesh

Md Mahfujur Rahman,     Institute of Halal Management, Islamic Businesses School, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia

Md. Mashiar Rahman,     Department of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, Bangladesh

Nadeem Rais,     Department of Pharmacy, Bhagwant University, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India

Kamarajan Rajagopalan,     Regeneration and Stem Cell Biology Lab, Centre for Molecular and Nanomedical Sciences, International Research Centre, Sathyabama Institute of Science & Technology (Deemed to be University), Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Sasireka Rajendran,     Department of Biotechnology, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu, India

Dhandapani Ramamurthy,     Fermentation Technology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, School of Biosciences, Periyar University, Salem, Tamil Nadu, India

B. Ramesh,     Department of Food Technology, Vikrama Simhapuri University, Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, India

Raganiyanthri Ramke,     Department of Biotechnology, Lady Doak College, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India

Beedu Sashidhar Rao,     Department of Biochemistry, University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

Muzamil Ahmad Rather,     Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, India

Vinoth Rathinam,     Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, P.S.R Engineering College, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu, India

Charu Dogra Rawat,     Molecular Biology and Genomics Laboratory, Ramjas College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India

Ayon Roy,     Department of Plant Pathology, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India

Bedaprana Roy,     Department of Microbiology, St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Ishita Roy,     Department of Botany, Vivekananda College, Thakurpukur, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Sayan Roy,     Department of Biotechnology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India

Swarnika Roy,     Department of Microbiology, St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Karuna Rupula,     Department of Biochemistry, University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

Sabreena,     Department of Environmental Science, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India

Raina Saha,     Department of Plant Pathology, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India

Sriparna Saha,     Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Patna, Bihar, India

Nandita Sahana,     Department of Biochemistry, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India

Monalisa Sahoo

Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India

Centurion University of Technology and Management, Odisha, India

Poonam Saini,     Rakesh P.G. College, Pilani, Rajasthan, India

Pandi Sakthieaswari,     Department of Botany, Lady Doak College, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India

Abhijit Samanta,     School of Science and Technology, The Neotia University, Sarisha, West Bengal, India

Souradip Seal,     Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Sripat Singh College, Affiliated to University of Kalyani, Jiaganj, Murshidabad, West Bengal, India

Jackson Durairaj Selvan Christyraj,     Regeneration and Stem Cell Biology Lab, Centre for Molecular and Nanomedical Sciences, International Research Centre, Sathyabama Institute of Science & Technology (Deemed to be University), Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Hitha Shaji,     School of Biosciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India

Zahra Shamsollahi,     Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

Purnima Sharma,     PG Department of Bioinformatics, Hans Raj Mahila MahaVidyalaya, Jalandhar, Punjab, India

Ruchika Sharma,     Department of Biotechnology, Government College for Women, Parade Ground, Jammu Tawi, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Vipin Kumar Sharma,     Department of Biochemistry, Central University of Haryana, Mahendergarh, Haryana, India

K.S. Shreenidhi,     Department of Biotechnology, Rajalakshmi Engineering College (Autonomous), (Affiliated to Anna University), Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Shafiquzzaman Siddiquee,     Biotechnology Research Institute, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia

Jyoti Singh,     Department of Bio-Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

Mahendra Singh,     Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bihar, India

Puja Singh,     Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal, India

Varsha Singh,     Department of Bio-Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

Trisha Sinha,     Department of Botany, Plant Physiology & Biochemistry, RPCAU, Pusa, Bihar, India

Reshma Soman,     School of Biosciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India

M. Srinivasulu,     Department of Biotechnology, Yogi Vemana University, Kadapa, Andhra Pradesh, India

Kannaiah Surendirakumar,     Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Imphal, Manipur, India

Silambarasan Tamil Selvan,     Department of Microbiology, School of Allied Health Sciences, Vinayaka Missions Research Foundation (Deemed to be University), Salem, Tamil Nadu, India

Naresh Tanwer,     Department of Environmental Science, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Haryana, India

Vinaya Satyawan Tari,     Department of Environmental Science, University of Mumbai, Ratnagiri Sub-Centre, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, India

Astha Tirkey,     Department of Botany, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India

Ankesh Tiwari,     Department of Botany, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India

Chockaiyan Usha,     Department of Biotechnology, Lady Doak College, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India

Sugumari Vallinayagam

Department of Biotechnology, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu, India

Department of Biotechnology, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology, Tamil Nadu, India

Balasubramanian Velramar,     Amity Institute of Biotechnology (AIB), Amity University Chhattisgarh, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India

Sakshi Verma,     Department of Zoology, Hans Raj Mahila MahaVidyalaya, Jalandhar, Punjab, India

Jyothy G. Vijayan,     Department of Chemistry, M.S Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Zairah Waris,     Department of Bio-Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

P. Suresh Yadav,     Department of Microbiology, Yogi Vemana University, Kadapa, Andhra Pradesh, India

Aarif Yaseen,     Department of Environmental Science, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India

Muzaffar Zaman,     Department of Environmental Science, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India

Mohd Zishan,     Department of Agricultural Sciences, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

Preface

Junaid Ahmad Malik

Humans are thought to be the most developed species on the planet. Microbes may be considered the most primitive form of life. Because of its dangerous nature, pollution is posing a serious threat to human health and the environment, and it has become a global problem for environmentalists. Today, we confront several environmental issues, the majority of which are caused by extensive human activity, growing urbanization, and industrial expansion. A variety of carcinogenic chemicals are released into the soil and water on a regular basis. The presence of these chemicals in water and soil not only disrupts our planet’s ecology but also puts human health at danger. As a result, it is becoming increasingly necessary to comprehend the finer points of this human–environment relationship. To remove these chemicals from soil and water, several methods have been developed. To significantly reduce pollution, environment-friendly, long-term methods and technologies are being used. It is critical to promote the use of microbial communities to break down or eliminate environmental pollutants such as heavy metals, insecticides, dyes, and other chemicals. It is necessary to understand the metal–microbial interaction in order to outline the in-depth mechanisms of bioremediation and biodegradation for the long-term usage of microbial communities in the bioremediation process. Microbes can break down these chemicals without hurting the environment, therefore microbial biotechnology has gained popularity. Environmental biotechnology developments have proven to be important in addressing a variety of environmental problems and global difficulties. Modern environmental biotechnology technologies might offer us with a better platform to enhance our quality standards and the general environment, as well as to investigate the use of renewable raw materials. This cutting-edge sector of biotechnology has long piqued the interest of the research and academic communities, motivating scientists to outline complicated systems in order to address global environmental concerns.

The book covers a wide range of microbial (bio)technology applications for environmental cleanup and sustainable agriculture. It discusses new developments in the realm of microbial breakdown and the remediation of xenobiotic chemicals in soil and wastewater. The book also covers a variety of current microbial biotechnological techniques for pollutant biodegradation and detoxification. This collection is the result of the work of a number of well-known academics, scientists, graduate students, and postdoctoral associates from across the world.

The book Microbes and Microbial Biotechnology for Green Remediation is divided into four major sections: (I) Microbial Bioremediation: An Introduction, (II) Microbes for Sustainable Agriculture and Green Remediation, (III) Emerging Contaminants and their Remediation, and (IV) Recent Trends and Tools. This book comprises 46 chapters starting with the introduction to microbial biotechnology and bioremediation, followed by microbial interaction with metals, emerging issues and challenges, promoting crop growth with symbiotic microbes, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, biochar, biofilms, microalgae, lactic acid bacteria, Bacillus, white rot fungi, arbuscular mycorrhiza, Streptomyces, biosorption, biosurfactants, bioclogging, microbial degradation of phenolic compounds, biofilm-mediated bioremediation of heavy metals, arsenic accumulating and transforming bacteria, microbial remediation of hexavalent chromium, microbial bioremediation of polythene and plastics, biodegradation of microplastics and synthetic polymers, microbes for the degradation of paint-contaminated soils, microbial degradation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products, microbial remediation of mercury-contaminated soils, adsorption of organic dyes from wastewater, environmental risk assessment of fluoride-contaminated soil on Prosopis juliflora seedlings, arsenic toxicity and its clinical manifestations, application of Deinococcus radiodurans for bioremediation of radioactive wastes, microbial bioremediation and biodegradation of radioactive waste-contaminated sites, new insights of cellulosic ethanol production from lignocellulosic feedstocks, mycorrhizal product glomalin, microbial quorum sensing systems, metagenomics, green-nanotechnology, and nanobioremediation.

Our readers have been properly informed on the current trends and the potential for using different cutting-edge techniques to clean up and save our environment. I benefited from the assistance and advice of a huge number of biotechnology experts throughout the world in the construction of this book. I owe a lot of gratitude to the reviewers, who gave constructive critique and helpful recommendations at various phases of the process. While appreciating all of the contributors, I want to reaffirm my commitment to publishing ethical and high-quality work through this book. Finally, I want to express my gratitude to my family members for their love, support, encouragement, and patience during this process.

The book is aimed toward agroindustry researchers, environmental science students, environmental microbiologists, and soil and water pollution abatement practitioners. Furthermore, for environmental biotechnologists, microbiological and biochemical technologists, and students from many streams of environmental engineering and industrial biotechnology, this book provides immediate access to a plethora of data.

Part I

Microbial bioremediation: an introduction

Outline

Chapter 1 Microbial biotechnology: an introduction

Chapter 2 Bioremediation of soil: an overview

Chapter 3 Microbial interaction with metals and metalloids

Chapter 4 Emerging issues and challenges for microbes-assisted remediation

Chapter 1

Microbial biotechnology: an introduction

Junaid Ahmad Malik¹, Md Mahfujur Rahman² and Nadeem Rais³,    ¹Department of Zoology, Government Degree College, Bijbehara, Jammu and Kashmir, India,    ²Institute of Halal Management, Islamic Businesses School, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia,    ³Department of Pharmacy, Bhagwant University, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India

Abstract

Microbes may be found in everyday places like soil, water, food, and animal intestines, as well as more unusual places like rocks, glaciers, hot springs, and deep-sea vents. The tremendous range of biochemical and metabolic characteristics that have developed via genetic variation and natural selection in microbial populations is reflected in the wide variety of microbial environments.

Microbial biotechnology will contribute to advancements such as enhanced inoculations and disease diagnostic tools, enhanced microbial agents for biocontrol of plant and animal pests, adjustments of plant and animal pathogens for reduced pathogenicity, development of new catalyst support and fermentation organisms, and development of new microbes for bioremediation of water and soil adulterated by agricultural runoff, all made possible by genome studies. Microbial genome sequencing and bioengineering research are essential for advancements in food security, food security, biotechnology, value-added products, human nutrition and food supplements, plant and animal defense, and agricultural fundamental research.

Keywords

Microbial inoculants; biosurfactants; biostimulation; food production; sustainability; bioremediation; gems; genotype

1.1 Introduction

Microbes are a necessary component of biotic diversity to maintain a healthy environment. They are primary life forms that have evolved into ecologically, metabolically, and genetically diverse species. Microbial diversity study in ecosystems attempts to understand countless metabolic pathways to preserve adamant integrity for long-term ecology. The bionetwork has benefited from the utility of microbial communities. Only 0.1%–10% of microbial specie have been identified, and the remainder are uncultured. These uncultured microbes occupy notable niches in biomes and are responsible for a variety of activities based on molecular genetics, systems and synthetic biology, genomics, proteomics, and metagenomics. Exploring biotechnological applications and comprehending their mechanisms of change allows advancement on the conditions required for diverse microbial applications in terms of sustainable development, community structure, and environmental processes. Molecular methods are highly valued tools for studying bacterial resistance to antibiotics and searching for novel antimicrobials.

Microbes are extremely small and account for the greatest proportion of all living things on the planet. However, only a tiny percentage of this vast variation has been investigated for microbial diversity creation. According to reports, the majority of microorganisms cannot be grown in labs (Sharma, 2018). Making these species and isolated microorganisms available to the research community is an important aspect of microbial research. After being removed from their natural habitat, microorganisms can be cultivated for conservation and use. Microbial activities keep the planet alive and provide a plethora of commercial uses, mostly in the field of life science (Arrigo, 2005). Microbial activity produces gases such as oxygen and nitrogen, which provide a livable environment. They play an important role in the removal of hazardous chemical substances (Kostka et al., 2011). Primary and secondary metabolites produced by microorganisms have antibacterial, immunosuppressive, antiinflammatory, and antitumor effects (Challis & Hopwood, 2003). In the previous few decades, more than 104 microbe-produced metabolites have been investigated for these substances. Microbial bioplastics are a viable alternative to chemical-based polymers, and they have medicinal implications (Verlinden et al., 2007). Culture-dependent (culturable) and culture-independent (unculturable) techniques can be used to classify microbial diversity research.

Environment-friendly ways to identify the indicator microbial strains that are the cause of the problem and those that are beneficial for environmental bioremediation are available through microbial biotechnology. The metabolomics capabilities of bacteria that enable the use of hazardous chemicals and biotransformation to utilizable intermediates and products are components of the microbial-driven bioremediation process that can benefit the community. The conversion of agricultural and industrial wastes, as well as municipal wastewater, into industrially usable value-added goods, has already been explored as a viable alternative. The proposed bacteria and metabolites for bioremediation are anticipated to be nonpathogenic, nontoxic, economically and commercially viable, active, and stable under hard environmental circumstances. Recent advances in synthetic biology, OMICS, and genetic engineering technologies have paved the road to achieving the chosen requirements, such as finding indicator strains, pollution routes, and the construction of custom microbe-metabolites that may be used for environmental bioremediation.

Biotechnological techniques for chemical pollution bioremediation allow for in situ treatments and are mostly based on microorganisms' natural activity. Biotechnological approaches for destroying hazardous wastes have a number of benefits over traditional physicochemical methods. When properly run, biotechnology procedures have the potential to completely destroy organic wastes. The sluggish rate of degradation, on the other hand, is a significant limiting factor in the bioremediation of areas polluted with some hazardous chemicals (Iwamoto & Nasu, 2001). The use of microorganisms to remediate polluted areas is typically limited by their sluggish disintegration rate. This is a field where genetic engineering can make a significant difference. With an increase in the reaction rate, molecular methods may be utilized to enhance the amount of a certain protein or enzyme or set of enzymes in bacteria (Chakrabarty, 1986). Starting with an organism that already has much of the essential degradative enzymatic machinery is the simplest method to generate a suitable genetically modified strain.

1.2 Role of microbes in environment

Because microorganisms are strongly impacted by the atmosphere, the environment is an important component. Microorganisms have a role in a variety of biogeochemical processes in various habitats. They have the most diverse repertoire and are regarded as natural cornerstones. Microbes originated on Earth more than 4 billion years ago and now serve a variety of essential functions in maintaining a healthy biosphere, including nutrition (elemental) cycling and the detoxification of dangerous chemicals in the atmosphere. The microbial world is a treasure in and of itself, encompassing a wide diversity of microbes from all sorts of microorganisms (bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes, and viruses) in every imaginable environment, as well as plants and humans on the planet. They are adept at utilizing a wide range of energy sources and living in a variety of settings, including normal and severe hot mainsprings, hydrothermal vent sites, drought, ocean and sea, polar ice, hypersaline and pH extremes that are deadly to most organisms, and other hostile conditions. Microorganisms have become an essential part of the natural elemental cycle, playing key roles in biogeochemical cycles and converting molecules from oxidized to reduced forms (Baldrian et al., 2012; Staben et al., 1997).

Microbes in the soil also are aided by plant activities. Roots (rhizosphere and rhizoplane) and leaves (phyllosphere and phylloplane) are where microbes interact with plants. The rhizosphere serves as a microbial diversity reserve (Singh et al., 2019). Some may generate resistance or reduce the development of plant diseases, and have both positive and negative effects on plant growth (Lanteigne et al., 2012). Microorganisms are extremely adaptable and play an important role in improving soil fertility. Microbial activity aids in the cycling of nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, iron, and manganese in soil. They function as biofertilizers, capturing atmospheric nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur, as well as other elements that are inaccessible to plants, and thus they contribute to plant nutrition (Yadav & Saxena, 2018).

After algae and protozoa, bacteria and fungus make up the largest part of the microbial population. Common sulfate reducers belong to the genera Desulfovibrio, Desulfotomaculum, Desulfosarcina, and Desulfococcus; nitrogen fixers and methane producers are from the genera Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Rhizobium, Clostridium, Klebsiella, Methanococcoides methylutens; and phosphate solubilizers are commonly from the genera Bacillus and Paenibacill (Das et al., 2009). They have a distinct microbial makeup that contains a significant amount of medicinal enzymes, antibiotic and antitumor agents, insecticides, and other chemicals.

Microbes are common, well-adapted to freshwater, and engaged in a variety of biogeochemical processes, including the petrification of organic molecules; nutrients can be remineralized to help keep the aquatic environment healthy (Newton & McLellan, 2015). Bacteria, algae, and cyanobacteria are among the photosynthetic oxygenic and anoxygenic organisms. Oceans cover 70% of the Earth's surface, while microorganisms account for over 98% of ocean biomass. Microalgae, bacteria, archaea, fungus, and viruses make up the marine microbial diversity (Fuhrman & Noble, 1995). They have a lot of biodiversity and have a lot of promise for drug discovery and the delivery of new marine-derived compounds in therapeutic claims. They serve a variety of roles in the marine environment, including food chain management, nutrient transformation, and maintaining the marine ecosystem for the survival of marine species (Wilkins et al., 2013).

Extremophiles are the creatures that live in severe environments. Extremophiles' adaptability is classified by high and low temperature (thermophiles and psychrophiles), high salt concentration, high and low pH (acidophiles and alkaliphiles), and low water activity. Extremophile-produced microbial products are extremely important. Many studies have been published on microbial diversity in extreme settings, such as low temperature (Yadav, 2015), high temperature, saline soil, drought, acidic soil, and alkaline soil. In an unstable environment, the costs of surviving in a stressed state may rise for certain species, while the majority would most likely perish. Novel microbial diversity is widely recognized in extreme settings. Microbes that live in high-temperature environments create a hydrophobic environment to survive (Acharya & Chaudhary, 2012). Microbial cells can survive denaturation and proteolysis thanks to the complicated zig-zag structure of proteins. The majority of the microbes recovered and identified in saline settings belong to the Halobacteriaceae family. Actinobacteria, Bacteroides, Euryarchaeota, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Spirochetes are some of the phyla that have been characterized as halophilic microorganisms (Yadav & Saxena, 2018).

Divergence among microorganisms is essential for the survival of all living forms and provides vast reserves that may be used for human benefit. They've turned into storage facilities for a variety of drugs. Microbes have been employed in the manufacture of beer, wine, acetic acid, cheese, and yoghurt, as well as in a variety of other sectors such as baking, leather, paper pulp, and textiles (Acharya & Chaudhary, 2012). The most competent and cost-effective method of bioremediation is the combination of various technologies, such as designed biosensors for assessing the level of contamination, mining of the large number of polluted spots, and designing of geohydrobiological engineering models, via polishing the spots with microbe-assisted flora (Pilon-Smits, 2005). Bioremediation has the capacity to clean up contaminated areas. The integrated effort may give evidence to be one of the preeminent ecological techniques for the recovery of damaged areas. Microbes are involved in the elimination of hazardous substances as well as the biodegradation of oil. Toxic chemical monitoring can be done with microbial-based biosensors.

1.3 Role in enhancing enzyme activity

Because of their great efficiency and little substrate loss, enzymes offer several benefits over chemical-based businesses (Acharya & Chaudhary, 2012). Microbes have a wide range of enzymatic activities and are adept in catalyzing a wide range of biochemical processes using new enzymes. Microbial proteins of therapeutic value for human well-being are produced by microbes in the marine environment. Lipases, proteases, cellulases, and amylases, for example, have shown a lot of promise in the detergent business; amylases, cellulases, and catalases are used in the textile industry; amylases and pullulanases are used in the starch industry; and proteases and lipases are used in the leather industry. Cellulases have sparked attention across the world because of their potential involvement in the production and transportation of fuel, and they are also the world's third largest industrial enzyme. For the most part, fungi and bacteria have been used to produce cellulase (Acharya & Chaudhary, 2012). Hydrolytic enzymes are produced by halophilic bacteria and are important in the economy (Ventosa & Nieto, 1995). Extracellularly produced biocatalysts were discovered in bacteria isolated from mangroves in Brazil, including starch hydrolyzing enzymes, amylases; proteolytic enzymes, proteases; and ester lipid hydrolytic enzymes, esterase and lipase (Das et al. 2009). Husain et al. (2016, 2017) described chemotherapeutic proteases (asparaginase, arginase, and arginine deiminase) obtained from rhizospheric soil, and endophytic bacteria, such as the discovery that Aspergillus niger isolated from a mangrove ecosystem can produce an enzyme xylanase that can sustain high temperatures and pH as well as biobleach paper pulp.

1.3.1 DNA shuffle and enzyme tailoring

It is possible to expand the variety of substrates that an organism may use by genetically modifying metabolic pathways. Aromatic hydrocarbon dioxygenases, which are members of the Rieske nonheme iron oxygenase family, have a broad substrate specificity and catalyze enantiospecific reactions with a variety of substrates. These properties make these enzymes appealing synthons for the synthesis of industrially and medically significant chiral compounds, as well as providing crucial information for bioremediation technology development (Gibson & Parales, 2000). Aromatic hydrocarbon dioxygenases are members of the aromatic-ring hydroxylating dioxygenases family. Before their oxygenase components, all members of this family have one or two electron transport proteins. Monooxygenases and other enzymes that do not hydroxylate aromatic rings are also found in the family.

1.4 Role in biosurfactants

Biosurfactants have a variety of medicinal characteristics, including antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and anticoagulant activities. Biosurfactants and bio-emulsifiers are microbial compounds with high surface and emulsifying activity. Biosurfactants have attracted a lot of attention in comparison to chemical surfactants because of their reduced toxicity, easier manufacturing, environmental friendliness, and better biodegradability (Mulligan et al., 2011). Biosurfactants are categorized as glycolipids, phospholipids, lipopeptides, and polymeric surfactants based on their microbial origin and chemical configuration properties. Glycolipids and lipopeptides generated by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bacillus subtilis, respectively, are the most frequent biosurfactants among the four groups studied (Pornsunthorntawee et al., 2008). Biosurfactants have more desirable properties than chemical surfactants, such as material breakdown, reduced toxicity, and efficiency at low/high pH or temperature, making them more valuable than chemical surfactants and improving bioremediation effectiveness.

1.5 Role in enhancing antimicrobial properties

Due to resistance exhibited against numerous antibiotics by various groups of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms, the need for the diversity and growth of novel classes of antimicrobial drugs is rising, causing serious problems in the repression of infectious illnesses. Plants, fungus, bacteria, and actinomycetes were discovered to generate bioactive chemicals. Actinomycetes are a potential possibility for treating diabetic and neurological disorders, and they are anticipated to be a rich source of antitumor and antiinflammatory chemicals following a few genetic changes. Microorganisms found in mangrove habitats are thought to be a natural hotspot for developing new and better medicines. Anticancer, antitumor, and antiinflammatory capabilities were found in 2000 microorganisms, including fungi, bacteria, and actinomycetes, that had the ability to manufacture secondary metabolites (Shanmugam & Mody, 2000).

Traditional microbe cultivation techniques, as well as sophisticated culture-independent approaches, may be considered as a primary strategy to understanding how microorganisms exist and their role in harsh environments. Microbial diversity research contributes to a better knowledge of the role and function of microbial communities in terrestrial, aquatic, and marine habitats, as well as the implications of extinction of plant and animal species and ecological trepidations. As a result, microbial communities are great models for researching and analyzing basic biological interactions for the maintenance of plant and animal ecology, as well as enhanced dimensions for maintaining water quality and soil fertility.

1.6 Role in food production

Climate change, stagnating crop production, nutrient shortage and degradation of soil organic matter, water availability and diminishing cultivable area, rising resistance to genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and labor scarcity are only a few of the difficulties that agriculture faces. Although the explicit use of chemical fertilizers has resulted in a fourfold rise in the production of food grains, the unregulated fertilization has also resulted in a static yield of some crops owing to the continual reduction in the organic content of the soil (Pandey, 2018). Furthermore, the current world's food system is confronted with serious environmental issues such as biodiversity loss, climate change, food insecurity, and water shortages (El Bilali & Allahyari, 2018). The perception of sustainability transition in agriculture refers to a shift from an agri-food system that is exclusively focused on increasing production to a system that is solely built around the extensive ideals of sustainable agriculture (Brunori et al., 2013). Thus maintaining soil fertility and advanced food output while respecting ecological constraints is a critical component in increasing food security (Nkomoki et al., 2018). As a result, the current age emphasizes the critical importance of adopting environment-friendly and sustainable farming methods to maintain soil fertility and production. An unusually large proportion of different species in terrestrial bionetworks live in soils and are thought to have a major role in ecosystem services (Prashar et al., 2014). The use of such microorganisms appears to be a realistic strategy for raising the status of contemporary agriculture in terms of environmental sustainability and production efficacy. Plant-associated bacteria have a remarkable capacity to improve plant resilience and yields in agricultural systems. There is mounting evidence that biological technologies utilizing microorganisms or their metabolites can improve nutrient absorption and production, control insect dynamics, and reduce plant stress responses, as well as promote disease resistance in plants (Trivedi et al., 2017).

Organic chemistry advancements have aided in the synthesis and production of a plethora of new organic composites, the majority of which are xenobiotics. Pesticides account for the majority of such xenobiotic chemicals, which are mostly used in agricultural zones (Duong et al., 1997). Pesticides are widely used to control agronomic and household pests to avoid such damage. The intentional use of pesticides saved substantial food waste, but also resulted in extensive chemical dispersal in many settings, as well as agronomic harvests. As a result, the use of pesticides in this manner poses a significant risk to both the environment and human health (Chen et al., 2007). Several fungal species, including A. niger, Aspergillus fumigatus, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Penicillium raistrickii, and Aspergillus sydowii, have also been found in contaminated areas and have been proven to be capable of degrading various pesticides. Similarly, several genera of algae, such as Stichococcus, Scenedesmus, and Chlorella, as well as some cyanobacteria, such as Nostoc, Anabaena, and Oscillatoria, have been shown to be capable of converting various pesticides (Kumar et al., 2018). As a result of mounting evidence of pesticide-transforming microbial capacity, several academics across the world have turned their attention to the study of microbial diversity, particularly in polluted locations. However, the presence of microorganisms alone is insufficient; a suitable habitat, as well as a variety of degradation attitudes, such as hydrolysis and adsorption, is also necessary. Furthermore, enzymatic solicitations aimed at pesticidal degradation are gaining traction, and genetically engineered microorganisms (GEMs) have been considered as a way to boost microbe potential and increase biodegradation proportions (Tang et al., 2009).

1.7 Role in biofertilizers and agroecosystems

The green revolution saw the unmistakable use of chemical fertilizers to boost plant growth and production efficiency while also replenishing soil nutrient eminence (Mohammadi & Sohrabi, 2012). Although they have made significant contributions to the development of superior agronomic practices for achieving higher levels of production, their continued use has resulted in a number of negative consequences, including increased prices, plant inability to access a large proportion of nutrients, and a lethal and nonbiodegradable attitude, all of which have a negative impact on the environment and render soil resources incompatible with farming practices. As a result, using biological fertilizers to boost production and improve nutritional status in agroecosystems appears to be a viable option.

Biofertilizers are microbial inoculants, which are often characterized as a product comprising living or dormant cells of nitrogen-fixing, phosphate-solubilizing, and cellulytic microorganisms etc. Biofertilizers, unlike chemical fertilizers, are living microorganisms that do not give nutrients to plants but assist them in accessing nutrient availability in the rhizosphere. Nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria (Azotobacter, Rhizobium), nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria (Anabaena), phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (Pseudomonas sp.), and AM fungi are all widely employed as biofertilizers. Biofertilizer formulations also include phytohormone (auxin)-producing bacteria and cellulolytic microorganisms. These microbial formulations are used to boost the availability of nutrients in a form that can be absorbed by plants by enhancing specific microbial processes. Biofertilizers are low-cost, renewable plant nutrition sources. These are beneficial soil microbe strains that have been grown and packaged in a suitable carrier in the laboratory.

The use of biofertilizers is largely based on the fertilizer's biological origin, particularly the microorganisms, which include bacteria and fungus. Because these are biological resources, they also act as environment-friendly aspects, ensuring that the ecosystem remains healthy. Biofertilizers, also known as microbial inoculants, are a formulation containing alive or dormant cells of competent microbial strains capable of nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, or cellulolytic microbes, and are commonly used for seed application, soil, or composting zones with the primary goal of increasing the population of these microbes while also speeding up specific microbial practises (Giri et al., 2019). The technique of bacterization is used to create commercial biofertilizers by covering seeds with a variety of bacteria such as Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Bacillus, Azospirillum, and Pseudomonas. These microorganisms produce a number of chemicals that aid in the formation of their products. Azotobacter chroococcum, for example, secretes azotobacterin, while Bacillus megaterium secretes phosphobacterin (Kumar & Bohra, 2006).

Nitrogen fixers, potassium solubilizers, and phosphorus solubilizers are the most often used microorganisms as biofertilizer components. The majority of microorganisms included in biofertilizer have tight ties to plant roots. Rhizobia and legume roots have a symbiotic relationship, and rhizobacteria live on the root surface or in the rhizosphere soil. The ecto-rhizospheric Bacillus species, as well as Pseudomonas and certain endosymbiotic rhizobia, are the most promising soil bacterial families for operative phosphate solubilization (Igual et al., 2001). Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, Bacillus, and Enterobacter, as well as certain fungal species like Penicillium and Aspergillus, are among the microorganisms that can effectively solubilize phosphate (Whitelaw, 2000). Phosphate solubilizers B. megaterium, Bacillus polymyxa, B. subtilis, Bacillus circulans, Bacillus sircalmous, Pseudomonas striata, and Enterobacter are among the most powerful species (Subbarao, 1988). Several Bacillus species, such as Bacillus mucilaginous, have the capacity to solubilize potassium as well. As a result of their various positive qualities, biofertilizers play an essential role in increasing the production of food crops, and hence have the great capacity to partially or completely replace synthetic fertilizers, which may be accomplished through a variety of targeted ways.

1.8 Genetically engineered microorganisms

Advances in genetic and protein engineering techniques have opened up new pathways toward the goal of GEMs acting as