The Answer to the Subjective Process of Drug Addictions, and Natural Addictions

By Lee Arnold Green Sr.

The information in this book derives from personal experience, scientific research, observation and social interaction with drug users. These factors empowered me with the ability to write this book. I wrote it with the public in heart and society in mind, and that nothing, I mean nothing is more empowering than knowledge, especially when it is new or original. So, this book comprises the basic stages and phases of the subjective process of drug addiction, which is in keeping with the deletion of receptor proteins off the surface of the nerve membrane. It is a perfect asset to any library, community as well as home. It is a perfect guide for drug users, the general public and as well parents with growing up children. There are many sources or references in this book of scientific research studies that are present and past. At least twenty years has been invested in this book and innumerable rewrites, in order to get it right by properly putting it together with scientific research in support, rather than just personal experience and common sense, or knowledge.

 

One of the major aspects of this book is the subjective process of drug addiction, which is supported by the proper and appropriate, scientific research according to the removal of drug- receptors from the surface of the nerve membrane. Another major feature of this book is that it puts drug use mood swings and marked behavior changes in an ordered sequence. Even science itself has not been able to put the bits and pieces of studies together in order to exhibit such, but it enabled me to do so. For example, this book tells us when drug users become biologically exposed to the drug, when the homeostasis becomes imbalanced and the allostasis is at risk. Also this book points out when drug users become criminally inclined, too skinny, and then regain their composure and become fat and fine, and as a consequence deceive many; how they are positively and negatively reinforced sequentially and when withdrawal and/or withdrawal syndrome takes place. The most significant and major aspects of this book is the efficacy and potency of the drug-dose dividing into half, and why, during the subjective process of drug addiction. The information in thi

• Language: English
• Publisher: AuthorHouse
• Release date: May 4, 2009
• ISBN: 9781467864152

Lee Arnold Green Sr.

My name is Lee Arnold Green, Sr., and Author. I am a native of the State of Mississippi. I live in Greenville, MS. and having done so most of my adult life. I was born in Inverness, MS and reared in the suburb of Leland, MS. I attended school in the Leland School System. I played varsity football my senior year. However, I did not graduate but fortunately I went on to attend Great Onyx Job Corps Center in Mammoth Cave, Kentucky 01/1977 and continued my schooling. I earned a brick mason certificate after six months, and then decided to join the United States Marine Corps 07/1977 wherein I served five years; married a lovely devout Marine Woman (WM) Margaret E Neal, (Green) 11/1980 who served about two years, and together had four children, all boys. I attended a program of Division of Continuing Education sponsored jointly by the United States Marine Corps and Coastal Carolina Community College (CCCC) in Jacksonville NC. I earned a Certificate of Achievement, and later my (GED) in 1981. Then I begin higher education studies in USMC’s extended Division of Continuing Education sponsored by East Carolina University (ECU) of Greenville, North Carolina. I separated from USMC 06/1982 and move to Greenville, NC to study on ECU campus. My major was psychology and minor sociology. Interestingly, I participated in the first research data gathering for seat-belt laws. I also studied at Pitt Community College (PCC) in a Human Services Technique Program in Greenville, NC. Unfortunately my education was put on hold in 1984 until the Fall of 2004. Then I resumed my educational studies by attending Mississippi Delta Community College (MDCC) in MoorHead, MS and then Delta State University in Cleveland, MS the Winter of 2005, also Mississippi Valley State University (MVSU) in Itta Bena, MS the Summer of 2006. Fortunately I finished what I started at ECU at DSU 2006 with a Bachelor of Art Degree in Psychology, as well the program at PCC via internet with an Associate Degree in Applied Science. After which, I finished this book 2008 which had been researched and worked on since 12/1988 because of personal experience and desire to help people overcome drug addiction. A Two-Factor Theory materialized into Two-Cellular Systems.

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© 2009 Lee Arnold Green, Sr.. All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means without the written permission of the author.

First published by AuthorHouse 5/26/2009

ISBN: 978-1-4389-4571-2 (sc)

ISBN: 978-1-4678-6415-2 (ebk)

Printed in the United States of America

Bloomington, Indiana

Manufactured: in the United States of America

Executive Editor: Dane Shuttlesworth, Ph.D.

Designed by: Lee Arnold Green

Some artwork is a reproduction from elsewhere. Credit is given in the front of the book. The author produced other artwork in the book in the order to help explain the physiological and psychophysiological effects of drug addiction.

Contents

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgement

Chapter 1

Psychopharmacology of Drugs in Relation to Drug Addiction

Chapter 2

A Short History of Receptors

Chapter 3

Receptor Regulation, the Major Kinds of Drug Receptors and Transmitters

Chapter 4

Biochemical and Physiological

Mechanisms in relation to

Drug Addiction

Chapter 5

Drug Addiction’s

Dose and Tolerance

Chapter 6

Functional Brain Imaging

and Mapping Drug Addiction

Neural Network or Circuitry

Chapter 7

Positive Reinforcement of Drug Addiction

Chapter 8

Withdrawal and Withdrawal Syndrome

Chapter 9

Negative Reinforcement of Drug Addiction

Chapter 10

What is Responsible Drug Use?

Chapter 11

The Turning Point of Drug Addiction

Chapter 12

The Body’s Alarm System in Response to the Advancement of Disproportion of Functional Receptors

Chapter 13

The Conscience’s Impact on Criminality, in Relation to Receptor Adaptation

Chapter 14

Mood Modification, Personality Changes and Antisocial Personalities in relation to Receptor Adaptation

Chapter 15

Antisocial Personality in Relation to Receptor Adaptation

Chapter 16

The Role of the Primary Problem and Major Characteristic in Treating Drug Users

Chapter 17

The Subjective Battle of Drug Addiction due to Receptor Adaptation

Chapter 18

The Beginning of Drug Treatment with or without Detox

Chapter 19

The Beginning of Hardcore Drug Treatment

Chapter 20

The Breaking Point of Drug Addiction

Chapter 21

The Second Stage of Drug Addiction and Extended Drug Use

Chapter 22

The Second Stage of Extended Drug Use Drunkenness

Chapter 23

Brief History of Endorphins

References

Dedication

I dedicated this book to all societies in the world. And this book is also dedicated to the hard working human service professionals, law enforcement, medical professionals in substance abuse and the educational institutions providing services to drug abusers and alcoholics, and to those affected by alcoholism and drug abuse. In particular as to all of those who lost their lives fighting drug abuse, both legal and illegal; this book is dedicated, as well as to the victims of drug addictions. The Crack Cocaine Era brought out the best and the worse in America, and then the world at large. It demonstrated how ignorant we were concerning drug abuse, and particularly the rest of the world, and as a consequence ignited an army of research concerning drug addiction.

Preface

To properly and ultimately explain the subjective process of drug addiction biological, physiological and psychological troublesome effects have to be considered in order to do the necessary job. For that reason, I have devoted extensive knowledge of physiological psychology in this book. Dr. Bennett, a scientist and author granted permission to use his book An Introduction to Physiological psychology (1982) as I had wish to help put together the knowledge concerning drug addiction in order to deliver to the general public a fair and balance account. So, I self-studied physiological psychology in the 1990s and later studied the same material called biopsychology at Delta State University in Cleveland Mississippi. And after graduation December 09, 2006 with a Bachelor of Arts Degree in Psychology and an Associate Degree in Applied Science in Human Services Technology from Pitt Community College Greenville, North I proceeded to write the book on drug addiction.

The goal of physiological psychology is to explain behavior in terms of its physiological aspects. Therefore, physiological psychology is the study of the mechanisms that lead to psychological activity. My personal experience, observations, and much scientific research are included in putting together this book. This book has a lot to do with my divine intervention of deliverance off drugs and personal experiences of drug-induced changes in mood, behavior, perception and thinking relative to others. Topics include tolerance, withdrawal syndrome, and the increase in drug doses to larger ones.

My job in this book is to take personal experience, wisdom, knowledge and particularly scientific research statistically significant results available and explain the psychological and physiological foundation of drug addiction. As well, the grass roots or source that produce changes in which shape drug abusers behavior, affect perception, the process of thinking, and also to explain the subjective process of drug addictions and natural addictions.

This book is an original and unique comprehensive composite designed for the benefit of the general public. October 6, 1990 on or about 5:25 Central Standard Time the mystery of the subjective process of drug addiction was made clear to me through a spiritual awakening. My providential experience continued with the unraveling or unfolding of the mystery into a Two Factor Theory of four phases in which later became two cellular systems of stages and a subjective process of four phases.

I have written two manuscripts and one book. The first one on the effect of drugs called The Crack Cocaine Era (1990), and The Answer to Addiction Book (1995). And this third manuscript I called The Answer to the Subjective Process of Drug Addictions, and Natural Addictions (2009). This basic process came to me through divine intervention, in which I associate with extrasensory experience due to Baptism of Fire, or Fire Baptism as a result of an ordeal endured successfully, which is my Crack Cocaine Drug Addiction. My Crack Cocaine’s Addiction was endured to the end with a successfully positive outcome. That is to say, I beat my drug addiction, and was rewarded. Since I overcame the crack cocaine addiction, I have neither been bothered by it, nor used it because I am healed and delivered, and thereby set free. I have had to write in order to get the message out to society, and other drug abusers. Also, writing is the way my knowledge and guidance have come out of my sense of divine intervention.

I have been writing since December of 1988 and have observed drug abusers or addicts every since. Although I devoted very close attention to drug abusers and understood drugs to change attitudes, behaviors and the thinking process to product a less adequate and functional individual, I still used drugs. It amazed me growing up to watch the sudden, bizarre behaviors of drug abusers. Then, when I started using drugs I thought I truly understood substance or drug abuse.

I have smoked marijuana and cigarette, and have drunk beer; wine and hardcore liquors as well used hardcore drugs, such as crack and cocaine. These drugs became addictions in my life and ran their course. LSD was something use once or twice in the late 70s, and marijuana spiked with PCP. These drugs were used on a trial base, and thereby never became a problem. I not only observed others using drugs, but also while under the influence took careful notes. I have also lived with many other drug addicted people, and interacted with them on the street, and in their homes.

Acknowledgement

It takes a lot of good, faithful, hard-working people to put together a really good book. There are a lot of re-writes and editorial effort put forth in order to compose unique information into a book. I am indebted to Thomas Lee Bennett, PhD an author of Introduction to Physiological Psychology, of which I requested permission to use sketches related to physiological psychology and information from his book in order to help me compose my Book, the Answer to the Subjective Process to Drug Addiction, and Natural Addictions. He said before he gave me permission that, You could probably tell us something.

I wish to Acknowledge and thank Duane Shuttlesworth, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Psychology, Division of Counselor Education and Psychology at Delta State University; Cleveland, Mississippi who read the manuscript and provided me with helpful suggestions and constructive criticisms. He inspired and supported me. It is very hard to fine some one of his caliber willing to do the tedious work he did for me. And then he did a significantly outstanding job.

Chapter 1

Psychopharmacology of Drugs in Relation to Drug Addiction

Chemical Compounds and Dopamine

A chemical change is a process whereas reactants, substances or compounds are changed into one or more different substances, or decomposition occurs (Zumdahl, 2005). A substance is a material consisting of the same properties of matter throughout (Hesse, 1992). A chemical compound is a substance made up of two or more bonded elements. An example of a chemical compound is water (H-2-0). Water consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded and one oxygen atom (Wikipia, 2007). A chemical element is a substance that cannot be divided further because it is made up of identical atoms (Zumdahl, 2005; Kumar, et al., 2005). A drug is a substance other than food, in which alters biological processes (Kaffeeverband, 2007). Medicine is a drug that is use as a remedy for healing. A dose is a quantity of drug administered at once for a given effect, or desired effect (Chang, 2000).

A Brief History of Dopamine

Arvid Carlsson and Nils-Ake Hillarp discovered dopamine at the National Heart Institute of Sweden, in the Laboratories for Chemical Pharmacology in 1952, and named it monoamine. Carlsson was awarded the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for proving that dopamine is not only a precursor of noradrenalin and adrenaline but also a neurotransmitter. Dopamine’s synthetic precursor was 3, 4 dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA). It is biosynthesized in the body by nervous tissue, adrenal gland and the medulla and packaged into vesicle, then released into synapses by the presynaptic neuron. There are five known dopamine receptors which activates the substantia nigro, apart of the midbrain.

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter in the brain which is used by the reward pathways. There are four major pathways where dopamine is found as followed: mesolimbic, tuberoinfundibibular, mesocortical and nigrostriatal pathways. All four of these pathways are affected by dopamine in response to drugs that affect dopamine, and as a result these pathways are affected (Diaz, 1996). There are five dopaminergic receptors in which dopamine activates. Dopamine is a common hormone in many animals, particularly vertebrates. George Barger and James Ewens first synthesized dopamine in 1910 at Wellcome Laboratories in London, England (Benes, 2001; Berridge, & Robinson, 1998).

The Brain’s Reward System, Circuitry or Pathways

The release of dopamine activates all five dopaminergic receptors: D1, D2, D3, D4 and D5 which activates the substantia nigra, a heterogeneous portion of the midbrain and a primary feature of the basal ganglia system; a group of nuclei in the brain interconnected with the thalamus, cerebral cortex and the brainstem. The hypothalamus releases neurohormorne that function mainly to inhibit the release of prolactin from the anterior lobe of the pituitary (Pecino & Berridge, 2005; Ben-Johnathan & Hnasko, 2001).

Inputs of dopamine are directed to different pathways in the brain. These inputs are also associated with major brain structures in which outline the reward system or circuitry. The brain pathways are interconnected neurons whereby signals in the brain are transmitted, also known as neural tracts or network of neurons, through which one region in the brain communicates with another. The easiest way to understand the brain pathways is that, the brain pathways interconnect different brain regions like power lines connecting with other power lines (Haines 2008).

For example, dopaminergic neuron neurotransmitters bind to the receiving nerve cell and then transmit dopamine as neural signals that are released naturally in different areas of the brain, more specifically those areas associated with the brain structures that reward pleasure. Dopamine is significantly produced in these areas, and as a result feelings of pleasure, great joy and reinforced motivation are generated in the brain. Major cells that make up the circuits of drug-induced alterations in response to drugs are located in the midbrain where dopamine is manufactured, and then released in the brain adjunct to the nucleus accumbens (Nac) (Hanson, 2002).

Better yet, located adjunct to the nucleus accumbens in the midbrain area is the ventral tegmental area which is ultimately part of the midbrain. These two areas are interconnected via neurons, and as a result significant dopamine input is particularly abundant therein because it is significantly and specifically released in these areas because we are rewarded for food and sex. By efferent neurons of the nucleus accumbens connections are made to the substantia nigra, the largest nucleus lying close to the midbrain. Moreover, the mesolimbic pathway is one of the major pathways in the brain that connects the ventral tegmentum in the midbrain which is linked to dopaminergic neurons richly supplied therein, whereby the mesolimbic pathway links the nucleus accumbens located in the striatum, which is apart of the limbic system. Of the four primary pathways, the mesolimbic pathway is the main source of dopamine. The mesolimbic pathway involves feelings of pleasure, desires and reward (Diaz, 1996).

However, the dopaminergic pathway starts in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain, which connects to the limbic system by way of the nucleus accumbens, then links to the basolateral amygdala and prefrontal association cortices. The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is located within the frontal lobe above the eyes and is named accordingly, and therefore it is a part of the prefrontal lobe. Also, it is understood as a region of the brain. In particular the prefrontal lobe involves the executive functions such as: memory, planning, personality, cognitive processes and decision-making. It also involves emotions and reward, or pleasure and is therefore considered by some scientists to be part of the limbic system (Kringelbach, 2005). As a result these areas of the brain and brain structures make up the reward system.

The Effects and Actions of Psychoactive Drugs

In this chapter our main focus is the routes, action and effects of psychoactive drugs, and/or psychotropic substances. Psychoactive drugs or psychotropic substances are chemicals that act mainly on the central nervous system where their impacts temporarily alter brain function that are seen as changes in behavior, mood, thinking, perception and consciousness (Siegel, 2005). Psychoactive drugs are so powerful that they can change the function of the mind, as well the body. Narcotics are by far the most powerful drugs known to mankind. These drugs are widely known as problem-drugs because of their ability to produce euphoric pleasure which significantly alters consciousness. And therefore, they are often used as recreational drugs because of their pleasure-producing effects (Jones et al., 1982).

Psychopharmacology is the study of how chemicals interact with the brain to induce change in function resulting in personality change, mood, behavior and cognitive function, as well perceptual distortion. As a result, psychopharmacology concentrates primarily on the impact of psychoactive properties (Meyer & Quenzer, 2004; Caskey, et al., 2002). The actions and effects of substances with psychoactive properties are collectively known as psychopharmacological drugs (Caskey, et al., 2002; Wallace & Fisher, 1999).

After taking drugs into the body they must penetrate biological membranes in order to act on their target-cells thereby activating or deactivating the cells, influencing functional change by decreasing or increasing cellular activity through the receptors (Seiden & Dykstra, 1977). Drug action is the binding activity of occupation and saturation of a receptor, and how the drug is affected between the two (Cochin, 1970; Bennett, 1982). Drug effect is referred to as the wide range of changes in the physiological and psychological function caused by the drug (Meyer & Quenzer, 2004).

Interestingly, the drug no longer puts forth an effect after binding takes place, that is, the occupation and saturation of the receptor site. By that means the drug action is in effect, and then it exerts its drug effect. The only other action of the drug is that it remains bound to stop the effects of another drug or dose, or the molecules of other drugs that would otherwise bind and initiate a new response in the receptor. Therefore as a consequence of the initial binding of a drug dose or molecule, the combining of other doses or other drugs are prevented from combining with the receptor by depolarizing or stimulating the nerve cell. As observed with nicotinic agonist drugs, nicotine dissociates or separates from the receptors quite slowly keeping the nerve membrane depolarized, or stimulated and thereby preventing the initiation of a new action potential from taking place until the nicotine is removed from the binding site (Cochin, 1970).

The Ultimate Impact of Psychoactive Drugs on the Brain’s Reward System

Drugs taken into the body that trigger the release of dopamine in the brain results in a pleasurable sensation known as euphoria, but more commonly known as a drug high. When drug abusers refrain from taking the drug cravings of withdrawal are initiated because the receptors are not under the effect of the drug, which prompts drug users to repeatedly administer the drug for the release of dopamine in order to obtain pleasure and as a result avoid withdrawal. Drugs that cause the release of dopamine in the brain are known as psychoactive drugs because of their impact on the dopaminergic neurons, certain brain structures and areas where dopamine is manufactured. Dopamine production is increased in the brain by psychoactive drugs and in response pleasure, and as a result consciousness is altered.

Because of the impact of psychoactive drugs on dopaminergic receptors dopamine is increased in the brain, and as a result the key effect of psychoactive drugs is the increase of dopamine in the brain and in response euphoric pleasure. Together, these two factors are the ultimate impact of psychoactive drugs (Caskey, et al., 2002). And as a consequence they produce strong mood changes with pleasure being the dominant effect. Significant research has shown that drugs are abused because of euphoria or euphoric pleasure in response to dopamine (Pecino & Berridge, 2005; Hanson, 2002).

Psychoactive drugs directly target the dopaminergic nerve cells which send signals to the brain’s reward system, and in response these circuits are flooded with dopamine (Fahn, 2006). In regions of the brain where feelings of pleasure, movement, cognitive, emotion and motivation are governed, dopamine is present and significantly concentrated (Hanson, 2002). Surges of dopamine in the brain’s reward system are produced as signals from drugs as pleasure. And as a result, dopamine stimulates the brain as an accelerator. At high levels of dopamine people are highly alerted. But, when it is at low levels people are less alerted (Wise, 1998).

The fluctuation of dopamine causes mood swings throughout the second half of the subjective process, which is easily noticeable after biological exposure to the drug. When dopamine is too low it causes depression in people, and may cause Parkinson Disease, also the ability to focus or concentrate is difficult (Venton, et al., 2006). When dopamine input into the reward system is raised drug users experience euphoric pleasure, but when it is overly extended they become overly stimulated and abnormal behaviors set in such as paranoid, hallucinations, illusions, delusions and excessive suspicion because the ability to focus or concentrate becomes so intense, and so pronounced due to the adverse reactions of the drug, in particular in response to withdrawal.

To the contrary, as a result of dopamine subsiding in terms of the drug’s high such behaviors goes away, and euphoria diminishes leaving the body craving for another rush of dopamine. And as a result, drug abusers seek out the use of the drug to repeat its pleasurable experience. And as a consequence, these extremely abnormal behaviors are seen actively in operation as drug users repeatedly use their drugs of choice and are overly stimulated. These are metamorphic transformations when drug users are subjected to drug-induced behavioral abnormalities and gradually come back to reality. This type of mental illness is temporarily, but is seen in real time, and the greater the disproportion of functional receptors, the longer drug users stay into the metamorphic transformation of mental illness (Venton, et al., 2006; NIDA, 2007).

Pharmacology studies the way drugs interact within biological systems to induce change in function. It is the pharmacologic effects of psychoactive drugs that produce adverse consequences when administered in large doses resulting in high concentrations that leads to a high fraction unbound to plasma protein, since that fraction is active (Nagle et al., 2005). Ultimately, every drug has its own pharmacological profile; yet research shows that the one thing all psychopharmacological drugs have in common is that they all increase the release of dopamine in the brain (Phillis et al., 2003).

Psychoactive drugs date back thousands of years as when men hunted and gathered substances to sustain life. In those days people had a tendency to prefer typical plants of hallucinogens, because these plants were pleasure-producing and therefore caused rapid mood changes characterized by mood swings due to their potentially severe side effects as do psychostimulant drugs such as cocaine. Historically hallucinogenic plants grew in the wild and were thereby easily accessible. And because of the pleasure and hallucinogenic effects of these plants they were often used recreationally.

Such plants included different hallucinogens such as mushrooms and other plants, which were also used for various physical ailments. Although modern man has deviated from scientifically researching and using tradition herbal remedies, the 20th century researchers have begun to take another look at herbs and their relation to medicine. As far as history can record the first medicine used by man was herbs; even alcohol comes from the fermentation of fruits and cereals (Meyer & Quenzer, 2004; Jacobs, 1987).

The Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) in Relation to Drug Addiction

Psychoactive drugs must cross the blood brain barrier. The blood brain barrier (BBB) is a feature of the physical structure of the capillaries that take the arterial blood to the neurons and brain tissue (Prdridge, 1999). That is, a weaker region located at the base of the brain called the area postrema. The area postrema is involved in initiating vomiting in the case of a poisonous substance attempt to enter the brain (Bennett, 1982, p. 65-66; Davson, 1972). The purpose of the blood brain barrier is to keep toxic substances and nonnutritive substances out of the brain to prevent them from entering and harming neurons and nervous tissue.

It not only serves as a defense, but also a source of stability. For example, blood concentration may rise immediately after eating and chemicals acutely cause disruptive brain function (Stathis et al., 1995), interestingly the BBB safeguards the brain against such. For example, If a poisonous substance is eaten and the poison enters the circulatory system from the stomach the substance can cross the blood brain barrier at the area postrema and stimulate vomiting (Bennett, 1982 pp. 65-66; Davson, 1972). The neurons are selective as to what they allow to pass through the membrane, but by any chance a person takes in a poisonous substance vomiting is initiated whereby the body attempts to eliminate the poison before it enters the brain and cause damage or death.

The Routes of Taking Drugs into the Body

The effectiveness of a drug depends on how much of the drug impacts the organ targeted during a given dose. The speed of a drug reaching its targeted organ depends on a number of factors; more specifically they must first pass through several biological membranes. Their types and numbers are based on the route in which the drug is administered and the rate at which the drug is administered, which determines the speed of absorption of the drug. And therefore the effects of drugs significantly depend on the dose, the rate it is administered and the site of administration (Seiden & Dykstra, 1977). There are several routes of administration of drugs. Here are the ways in which drugs can be taken into the body as follow: oral, injection, inhalation, sublingual or buccal, intraperitoneal, intracerebroventricular, intraarterial, intranasal, intrathecal, intracardiac, intramuscular and subcutaneous (Inaba & Cohen, 2007; Langer, 1990).

Oral administration is the slowest process of absorption of a drug into the bloodstream because the drug must penetrate the lining of the stomach and intestine in order to be absorbed into the bloodstream. The oral administration of a drug is usually given in large doses because some of the drug is absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract. Sublingual or buccal is the oral administration of a drug through the mucosa under the tongue or between the gums inside the jaw (Langer, 1990). Injection administration (I.V.) of a drug is intravenously putting the drug directly into the bloodstream, which produces a rapid drug effect because the drug reaches its target more rapidly. There are several ways of administering drugs by injection. Once a drug is absorbed by the blood it is rapidly distributed throughout the circulatory system, but before the drug can affect its targeted organ it must pass through various types of membranes in the body (Bennett, 1982, p 197; Davson, (1972). Intracardiac is the administration of a drug into the heart for cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Intraosseous is the administration of a drug into the bone marrow. Since bone marrow drains straight into the venous system, it is indirectly and intravenously administered (Inaba & Cohen, 207).

Intraperitoneal injection is usually performed on small animals such as laboratory rats. Intramuscular injection (I.M.) is a relatively good route for administrating drugs because of the rich supply of blood that surrounds the muscles. Intracerebroventricular injection is used to inject drugs into the ventricular areas of the brain to bypass the blood-brain barrier. Subcutaneous injection (S.C.) is the use of none inflammatory substances that can be absorbed rather equally slow because the blood is poorly supplied to fatty tissue.

Intranasal administration is the administration of drugs