Wildlife of the Box-Ironbark Country

By Chris Tzaros

Victoria's Box–Ironbark region is one of the most important areas of animal diversity and significance in southern Australia. The forests and woodlands of this region provide critical habitat for a diverse array of woodland-dependent animals, including many threatened and declining species such as the Squirrel Glider, Brush-tailed Phascogale, Regent Honeyeater, Swift Parrot, Pink-tailed Worm-Lizard, Woodland Blind Snake, Tree Goanna and Bibron's Toadlet.

Wildlife of the Box–Ironbark Country gives a comprehensive overview of the ecology of the Box–Ironbark habitats and their wildlife, and how climate change is having a major influence. This extensively revised second edition covers all of the mammals, birds, reptiles and frogs that occur in the region, with a brief description of their distribution, status, ecology and identification, together with a detailed distribution map and superb colour photograph for each species. The book includes a 'Where to watch' section, featuring a selection of national parks, state parks and nature conservation reserves where people can experience the ecosystem and its wildlife for themselves.

This book is intended for land managers, conservation and wildlife workers, fauna consultants, landholders, teachers, students, naturalists and all those interested in learning about and appreciating the wildlife of this fascinating and endangered ecosystem.

• Language: English
• Publisher: CSIRO PUBLISHING
• Release date: Oct 1, 2021
• ISBN: 9781486313174

Chris Tzaros

Chris Tzaros has 25 years' experience working on wildlife research and conservation projects, largely focused on threatened woodland birds, for both government and non-government environmental and conservation organisations. He is an award-winning wildlife photographer and has produced the majority of the photos in this book. Chris is currently an independent wildlife ecologist and nature photographer based in north-east Victoria but enjoys working among nature right around Australia.

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© Chris Tzaros 2021

All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Australian Copyright Act 1968 and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, duplicating or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Contact CSIRO Publishing for all permission requests.

The author asserts their moral rights, including the right to be identified as the author.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the National Library of Australia.

ISBN: 9781486313150 (pbk)

ISBN: 9781486313167 (epdf)

ISBN: 9781486313174 (epub)

How to cite:

Tzaros C (2021) Wildlife of the Box–Ironbark Country. 2nd edn. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.

Published by:

CSIRO Publishing

Locked Bag 10

Clayton South VIC 3169

Australia

Telephone: [phone]

Email: [e-mail]

Website: www.publish.csiro.au

Front cover: (clockwise from top left) Tree Goanna; Swift Parrot; Yellow-footed Antechinus; Box–Ironbark forest, Dalyenong (photos by Chris Tzaros).

Back cover: (left to right) Turquoise Parrot; Squirrel Glider; Regent Honeyeater; Stumpy-tailed Lizard (photos by Chris Tzaros).

Title page: Red-capped Robin (photo by Chris Tzaros).

Edited by Elaine Cochrane

Cover design by James Kelly

Typeset by Envisage Information Technology

Printed in China by Leo Paper Products Ltd

CSIRO Publishing publishes and distributes scientific, technical and health science books, magazines and journals from Australia to a worldwide audience and conducts these activities autonomously from the research activities of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent those of, and should not be attributed to, the publisher or CSIRO. The copyright owner shall not be liable for technical or other errors or omissions contained herein. The reader/user accepts all risks and responsibility for losses, damages, costs and other consequences resulting directly or indirectly from using this information.

Acknowledgement

CSIRO acknowledges the Traditional Owners of the lands that we live and work on across Australia and pays its respect to Elders past and present. CSIRO recognises that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have made and will continue to make extraordinary contributions to all aspects of Australian life including culture, economy and science. CSIRO is committed to reconciliation and demonstrating respect for Indigenous knowledge and science. The use of Western science in this publication should not be interpreted as diminishing the knowledge of plants, animals and environment from Indigenous ecological knowledge systems.

The paper this book is printed on is in accordance with the standards of the Forest Stewardship Council® and other controlled material. The FSC® promotes environmentally responsible, socially beneficial and economically viable management of the world’s forests.

Jun21_01

Contents

Preface to the second edition

Acknowledgements

Introduction

Chapter 1 Wildlife of the Box–Ironbark: an overview

Chapter 2 Wildlife and habitat conservation

Chapter 3 Box–Ironbark habitats

Chapter 4 Species accounts

Mammals

Birds

Reptiles

Frogs

Chapter 5 Where to watch wildlife

Checklist of Box–Ironbark wildlife

Plant species referred to

Glossary

Recommended reading

Photo credits

Index

Preface to the second edition

The first edition of this book was published almost 16 years ago, and it has long been out of print. As intended, the book has been used extensively over this time and I am honoured to have received a lot of positive feedback from a range of different people. The book has been used to plan weekend trips away, as a guide to identify species and as an educational resource to help people understand the ecology of Box–Ironbark wildlife. Some have even told me the book has a place on their bedside table and it helps them nod off to sleep. I am glad the book has served so many useful purposes!

When CSIRO Publishing expressed interest in reprinting the book, I was given the opportunity to revise the content. At first, I estimated that apart from a few updates there would be little of the first edition that required any major change. But once I got started, I quickly realised that this second edition would require substantial revision. This is not because I regretted what had been written previously, but because there have been considerable changes to the Box–Ironbark ecosystem since 2005, because of the devastating Millennium Drought and the ongoing impacts of climate change. Furthermore, the past 15 years or so have seen a considerable amount of research and monitoring take place in the region. I have built up a wealth of additional knowledge based on my own research and conservation work, and I am indeed fortunate to have collaborated with many others who been carrying out work of some form or another that has contributed to our knowledge of wildlife ecology and conservation in the region. It is this latest information that I can now bring to you in the form of this second edition, which has been over a year in the making.

Changes in this second edition include:

•fully revised introductory chapters with updated information on the latest research and conservation initiatives, threats to Box–Ironbark fauna (including a discussion on the impacts of climate change in particular), and more detailed accounts of Box–Ironbark habitats

•an expanded selection of species descriptions for an additional 19 species

•updated species accounts, including new research information and conservation status

•updated names of species based on latest taxonomic research and classification

•new species distribution maps reflecting the significant increase of data since the first edition and the latest records from wildlife databases. For some species, maps present records before and after 2000 to indicate an observed change in their range or their reporting

•an overhaul of species photographs made possible by the advances in digital photography since the first edition. Most of the photographs are my own, painstakingly captured over the past 20 years. Even so, there were a few gaps and I have been fortunate to source some excellent images from a few close friends and colleagues, for which I am sincerely grateful

•the latest information on parks and reserves and updated lists and hints on where to find characteristic Box–Ironbark species.

As the success of and ongoing demand for the first edition have proved, there is a large and growing interest in Box–Ironbark wildlife and conservation, extending beyond scientific, conservation and naturalist circles and into the broader community. At a time when our wildlife and natural ecosystems are so severely under threat, I am hopeful that this book will continue to stimulate an appreciation of the Box–Ironbark country, to increase people’s knowledge of the significance of Box–Ironbark vegetation to wildlife, and to bring about an awareness of how climate change is changing the face of the Box–Ironbark country. There are things we can all do to reduce this impact to ensure a brighter future for the amazing yet highly underrated Box–Ironbark ecosystem.

Chris Tzaros

September 2020

Acknowledgements

First, I must thank all of the people who acquired a copy of the first edition of this book. If not for its popularity and usefulness, I may not have been as enthusiastic to revise it and produce this second edition.

Like the original, this second edition has substantially benefitted from the generous assistance of many dedicated friends and colleagues who have contributed in so many ways. It has been incredibly useful to bounce ideas off people and seek valuable feedback from those whom I can trust to be honest and constructive. The level of detail and comprehensiveness within this book is testament to the contribution and collation of information from a vast array of experts in their field, including naturalists with an intimate knowledge of ‘their’ patch, experts on particular species or groups of animals and those with insight into relevant areas of research and conservation work throughout the region. People I particularly wish to single out for their help include:

Jerry Alexander, Mark Antos, Elaine Bayes, Andrew Bennett, Geoff Brown, Mark Cairns, Garry Cheers, Nick Clemann, Eileen Collins, Damian Cook, Malcolm Cousland, Lisa Cox, Ian Davidson, Steve Davidson, Scott Eaton, James Fitzsimons, Ben Goonan, Richard Goonan, Mark Hutchinson, Dean Ingwersen, Glen Johnson, Michael Johnson, Peter Johnson, Leo Joseph, Lindy Lumsden, Greg Licence, Adrian Martins, Peter Menkhorst, Janice Mentiplay-Smith, Damian Michael, Euan Moore, Liz Newton, Martin O’Brien, Jan Osmotherly, Geoff Park, Dan Pendavingh, Doug Pocock, Darren Quin, Annette Robertson, Peter Robertson, Doug Robinson, John Robinson, Danny Rogers, Jenny Rolland, Lyndall Rowley, Mark Sanders, Debra Saxon-Campbell, Glen Schofield, Simon Starr, Ian Temby, Chris Timewell, Jeroen van Veen and Jenny Wilson.

For allowing the use of their excellent photographs, I am grateful to Ryan Francis, Geoff Park, David Parker, Peter Robertson, Mark Sanders and Bruce Thomson, who kindly provided images of species that my own camera is yet to capture. Photo credits appear on page 265. Thanks also to Mark Cairns for his assistance in tracking down a few last-minute photographic subjects required for this book.

All of the maps in this book were painstakingly generated by my brilliant and technologically adept wife, Julie. As a newcomer to this task, her ability to grasp instructions from various online tutorials and then produce the maps you see in this book was nothing short of remarkable, and I cannot thank her enough. To get the mapping process started, Mark Sanders patiently walked Julie through the use of the software, provided very detailed and useful instructions and was always on stand-by to answer our calls for assistance – thank you, Mark.

Assistance with data provision for the species maps was provided by Bev Yen and Mel Hardie from the Victorian Government Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (Victorian Biodiversity Atlas), and Joris Driessen and Dean Ingwersen from BirdLife Australia. I also thank all of the observant and diligent people who have submitted their wildlife records to the Atlas projects over many years – the creation of distribution maps would otherwise be impossible.

For reviewing drafts of the introductory chapters, I am extremely grateful to Ian Davidson and particularly Lyndall Rowley, who provided invaluable feedback which substantially improved this section of the book. Mark Hamilton at CSIRO Publishing provided many useful corrections and comments on the entire manuscript, and helped in the development of this book in many ways.

To the team at CSIRO Publishing – Mark Hamilton, Lauren Webb, Tracey Kudis and Briana Melideo – I extend my sincere appreciation of your support and for allowing this second edition to see the light of day.

Over the years, much of what I have learnt about the Box–Ironbark country and its wildlife has come from time spent in the company of many enthusiastic naturalists. I acknowledge the contribution of the Bendigo Field Naturalists Club and those individuals who have in some way shared their knowledge and helped nurture my interest and appreciation of Box–Ironbark wildlife. From those earlier years and beyond, I particularly recognise John Robinson, Ian Davidson and Andrew Bennett as mentors who have encouraged me to observe and interpret nature carefully, and to document my observations and findings in a way that will encourage other people to be better observers of their natural surroundings. This book is an example of their ongoing tuition and guidance.

Finally, I acknowledge the tremendous support and encouragement of my family. My parents, Peter and Ruth, have always supported my choice of career and shown great interest in my pursuits. In addition to producing the maps, Julie has provided endless encouragement, support and meticulous organisational assistance, not to mention carrying on with life as normal while I have been preoccupied with this book. For many years we have experienced the Box–Ironbark country together on our countless adventures, including many wonderful experiences with our son, Merlin. It is an immense privilege to share with Merlin my interest in the natural world and to see him develop into a sharp, observant and passionate young naturalist himself. With his keen eye, youthful curiosity and quick reflexes to catch and examine lively skinks as they scurry through the undergrowth, he has been a tremendous field assistant during the preparation of this book. His obsession with reptiles and interest in conservation gives me hope that a new generation of nature lovers will continue flying the flag for our wildlife long into the future. I dedicate this book to Merlin.

Chris Tzaros

September 2020

Introduction

Victoria’s Box–Ironbark forests and woodlands are a distinctive feature of the once vast and continuous belt of temperate eucalypt woodland that covered much of south-eastern Australia. Varying in their tree species and understorey composition but generally retaining their characteristic open structure, these quintessentially Australian forests and woodlands extend well beyond Victoria into New South Wales and southern Queensland.

Once covering 3 million hectares before European settlement, 83% of the original Box–Ironbark vegetation cover in Victoria has been cleared for agriculture, gold mining, timber production and urban development. What remains of this significant ecosystem is highly fragmented, degraded and structurally vastly different from its original form – a transformation from woodlands of large, broad-crowned, hollow-rich and widely spaced trees to a system dominated by high densities of small trees resulting from heavy and repeated cutting of the original forests.

Despite the extensive clearing and modification of the ecosystem and the significant transformation of the central and northern Victorian landscape, Box–Ironbark habitats remain ecologically important. They support an immensely rich faunal diversity unparalleled by any other woodland type in southern Australia. The remaining Box–Ironbark forests and woodlands support irreplaceable habitat for a host of declining, vulnerable and threatened species of wildlife. Not only do they play a vital role in the conservation of these threatened species and ecological communities, they also support populations of iconic and highly specialised woodland species that give the ecosystem a sense of uniqueness and understated charm.

Box–Ironbark landscapes are a culturally significant traditional estate of the region’s Indigenous people and have been for many thousands of years. Though they have been historically dispossessed of their land and its natural resources and cultural associations, Indigenous peoples’ respect for particular wildlife (e.g. totems) and tracts of Box–Ironbark country remains strong. Indigenous people had a close association with the natural features of the landscape and its bounty, which included great spiritual and cultural connections with wildlife, as recognised by the many place names throughout the region that are of Aboriginal origin and bear the local names of many of the region’s iconic animals.

The Box–Ironbark landscape

Known biogeographically as the Victorian Goldfields and Northern Inland Slopes, the Box–Ironbark region spans the sweep of gently undulating slopes and rises inland of the Great Dividing Range up to 350 m above sea level and down to the riverine floodplains of northern Victoria at 150 m above sea level. The region extends from around Stawell in the west through to the Chiltern area in the east.

The region experiences a temperate climate where the annual rainfall varies from an average of 400 mm in the driest north-western areas to 700 mm in the southern wettest areas. Temperatures are lowest in winter where it often falls below 1°C, and highest in the summer months when it regularly exceeds 40°C. However, historical weather patterns are changing under the influence of climate change, and the prediction is for a drying and hotter trend into the future.

Soils are mostly derived from ancient Ordovician sedimentary sandstones and shales, which are typically shallow and stony with low fertility and poor water-holding capacity. Intrusions of granite rock, usually associated with hilly terrain, occur in many areas, and has resulted in contact metamorphism and hardening of the surrounding sedimentary rocks. Colluvial sands are found on the lower granitic slopes and around the interface of the northern plains. The lowest parts of the landscape, along creek lines and their associated flats, support the deepest and most fertile alluvial soils. These variations in soil type and geology, and microclimate and topography, have shaped the landscape and influenced the type and diversity of the vegetation communities that we see today. In turn, the variation in floristic and structural elements between the different vegetation communities accounts for the variety of habitats available for wildlife, which is why the Box–Ironbark ecosystem has such a notably diverse and distinctive array of mammals, birds, reptiles and frogs.

How to use this book

The aim of this book is to provide effective information in one compact handbook for people to gain a better understanding and appreciation of the vertebrate wildlife of the Box–Ironbark region. Although the colour photographs will aid the identification of most animals, the book is not necessarily designed to be a field guide in that it lacks photos and illustrations that depict all the diagnostic features such as age and sexual differences necessary to identify a species. The book should therefore be used in conjunction with existing field guides that serve that purpose well. (These are listed towards the back of the book as recommended reading.)

Unlike other guides to the flora or fauna of a region, this book focuses on the wildlife of the Victorian Box–Ironbark ecosystem, which encompasses the primary extent of this vegetation type in central and northern parts of the state. The definition of Box–Ironbark vegetation follows that of Muir et al. (1995) Description and conservation status of the vegetation of the Box–Ironbark Ecosystem in Victoria. Smaller outlying areas of Box–Ironbark vegetation in southern Victoria differ in their floristic composition, geology, soils, landform and climate, and so are not included in this book. Also excluded are other vegetation types and biomes, such as the incursions of River Red Gum woodlands along the major rivers, cleared agricultural pastures, native grasslands and wetlands and other aquatic habitats that, although occurring in the general region, do not form part of the Box–Ironbark ecosystem as such. Based on the ecosystem principle, the book primarily deals with terrestrial fauna. The few aquatic and partly aquatic species that have been included do show regular or occasional use of Box–Ironbark vegetation, typically close to water bodies such as creeks and small seasonal wetlands within Box–Ironbark habitat. Introduced species have not been included in the species profiles but a section on this subject appears in Chapter 2 (page 46).

While the term ‘Box–Ironbark’ refers to the more characteristic tree species that dominate – particularly Grey Box, Yellow Box, Red Ironbark and Mugga Ironbark – these tree species can vary in presence and mix and are not necessarily found at all sites in the ecosystem. Furthermore, other species of eucalypts can occur alongside as part of Box–Ironbark habitat as well. Plant communities that are dominated by Yellow Gum, Red Stringybark, Red Box, White Box, River Red Gum, Blakely’s Red Gum and even mallee eucalypts, such as Blue Mallee, Green Mallee and Bull Mallee, are all considered part of the Box–Ironbark ecosystem. These communities are interspersed among the more typical Box–Ironbark vegetation types and, because they contain an array of understorey plants characteristic of the Box–Ironbark country, they qualify as Box–Ironbark vegetation in an ecological and botanical sense.

Only animal species that occur within the geographic area shown in the map, and that typically occupy Box–Ironbark vegetation, have been selected for inclusion in this book, based on the following criteria:

Mammals: species for which there are five or more accepted records in the Victorian Biodiversity Atlas.

Birds: species for which there are five or more accepted records in the Victorian Biodiversity Atlas, Birdata or eBird.

Reptiles and frogs: species that have an accepted record in the Victorian Biodiversity Atlas.

There is a complete checklist of all native species of terrestrial vertebrate fauna recorded within Victoria’s Box–Ironbark ecosystem on pages 243–251.

Species profiles

The individual species profiles in Chapter 4 summarise current knowledge about their distribution, status and ecology that is particularly relevant to the region. For each species, there are notes on diet, vocalisations, social organisation, general behaviour and breeding. There are also notes on habitat and microhabitat use, as well as information on specific locations where a species may be encountered. Under ‘Range and status’ there are notes on extent of occurrence, abundance, seasonality and conservation status where relevant (see also table on page 23). The account includes the name of any similar species that may be alike in appearance, behaviour or call, and some information to help differentiate between such species. Accompanying the notes for each species is a photograph and a distribution map, generated using the latest available data from the Victorian Biodiversity Atlas, Birdata and eBird (see below).

Unless specified, information in these species accounts relates specifically to the Victorian Box–Ironbark ecosystem, referred to throughout the species accounts simply as ‘Box–Ironbark’.

The following abbreviations for public land tenure have been used throughout the species accounts:

Taxonomy and nomenclature

In this book, common and scientific names used, and the sequence that species appear, generally follow those of:

Mammals: Jackson S, Groves C (2015) Taxonomy of Australian Mammals. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.

Birds: Menkhorst et al. (2019) The Australian Bird Guide. Revised edn. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.

Reptiles: Robertson P, Coventry AJ (2019) Reptiles of Victoria: A Guide to Identification and Ecology. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.

Frogs: Victorian Biodiversity Atlas taxa list.

Cogger H (2018) Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. 7th edn. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.

Plants: Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria – VicFlora online (Flora of Victoria).

The science of taxonomy is evolving through advances in technology and ongoing research, and changes to the naming and classification of several species have recently been proposed and widely accepted. In recognition of new scientific outcomes, and to maintain consistency around taxonomy and nomenclature, these recent name changes have been adopted in this book (e.g. Krefft’s Glider Petaurus notatus, Ride’s Free-tailed Bat Ozimops ridei and Large-striped Skink Ctenotus spaldingi).

Interpreting the species maps

The maps show the distribution of species within Victoria’s Box–Ironbark ecosystem and an inset map of their broader distribution within Victoria. Data was sourced from both the Victorian Biodiversity Atlas (VBA), established and maintained by the Victorian Government Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning, Birdata, managed by BirdLife Australia, and the eBird basic dataset, managed by the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology. Colours used on the maps were selected to allow ease of interpretation by people across the vision spectrum.

The Box–Ironbark maps show species records from the VBA, Birdata and eBird (black dots). This information is superimposed over the distribution of public land (shaded grey). Three towns are labelled to provide additional aid to location. This combination of public land layer and place name, and the enlarged scale of the map, allows the reader to interpret the distribution of a species with reasonable accuracy. It may also be useful for those wishing to determine which species occur in a particular park, nature reserve or forest block.

The Victoria maps also show species records from the VBA, Birdata and eBird (black dots). This information is presented state-wide, with the Box–Ironbark ecosystem (i.e. the area covered in the Box–Ironbark map) shaded grey. The reader may then examine the distribution of a given species in a state-wide context and in relation to the Box–Ironbark region.

Some maps provide an indication of species records since 2000 (black dots) and before 2000 (orange dots). While it is recognised that wildlife survey effort may have changed between these periods, and that an orange dot does not necessarily mean the species no longer occurs, for many species it does provide an indication of the extent and timing of change to their distribution. Range contraction may be obvious for threatened and declining species (e.g. Regent Honeyeater, Growling Grass Frog), while other species that have increased or been reported more frequently in recent times (e.g. Square-tailed Kite, Rainbow Lorikeet) are also evident.

New records of wildlife are continually being submitted to the various wildlife databases and maps can quickly become out of date. Generally, the maps contained herein are as comprehensive as possible and indicate the current general extent of species distributions using the most recent verified wildlife data available at the time of preparation. Rare, restricted and cryptic species may be under-reported in some cases because they may be difficult to detect, and many widespread and common species may also be under-represented on the maps due to a lack of reporting.

The diverse vegetation communities that make up Victoria’s Box–Ironbark ecosystem are scattered across the gently undulating rises and low hills inland of the Great Dividing Range in south-eastern Australia. Yellow Gum (foreground) commonly occurs throughout central and western parts of the region, growing in association with Grey Box (background) at lower elevations on relatively fertile soils. Both of these eucalypts are important nectar-producing species that many Box–Ironbark birds and mammals depend on.

1

Wildlife of the Box–Ironbark: an overview

The Box–Ironbark forests and woodlands covering the inland slopes of the Great Divide support an exceptionally diverse array of wildlife distinct from any other ecosystem in south-eastern Australia. One of the main reasons for this high level of species diversity is the position of the ecosystem in the broader landscape – interposed as it is between semi-arid inland environments to the north and west and higher-altitude moister environments to the east and south. Climate, landform, geology and soil type all influence the vegetation communities that make up this distinctive ecosystem and provide a wide variety of habitat types for wildlife, ranging from characteristic ironbark and box eucalypt woodlands to low mallee-dominated shrublands, interspersed with granite outcrops and fertile woodlands along watercourses.

At the time of European settlement, extensive areas of north-central and north-east Victoria were covered with Box–Ironbark vegetation. Despite significant clearing of these forests and woodlands in the 180 years since European settlement, the ecosystem continues to support over 300 species of native terrestrial wildlife. In each animal group, but most notably among the birds, there is an array of temperate woodland-dependent species, as well as species representative of the wet forests of the Great Dividing Range and the drier environments of the Murray River floodplain and semi-arid mallee region. Species from these adjacent regions generally occur at the edge of their range in the Box–Ironbark ecosystem. In addition, there are also widespread species that occupy many habitats throughout Victoria, further adding to the diversity of wildlife in the Box–Ironbark forests and woodlands.

The profound clearing, modification and fragmentation of Box–Ironbark habitats since European settlement, and the impacts associated with climate change more recently, have resulted in marked changes to the composition of wildlife communities and the conservation status of many species. Three particularly sensitive groups of wildlife, represented by several threatened and declining species, are:

•species that depend on tree hollows for shelter and/or breeding

•ground-dwelling species that use fallen branches and debris, and native grasses and herbs

•nectar-feeding species that rely on eucalypt flowering as a key food resource.

While we may never fully appreciate just how many species have been lost, it is clear from the limited historical records that some species have been driven to extinction and no longer occur in the ecosystem. Of great concern is the continuing loss and decline of many other species across parts or all of the Box–Ironbark region. The remaining areas of Box–Ironbark vegetation now support a high proportion of species that are either threatened, rare or not found elsewhere in the state. Consequently, these habitats have immense conservation value at a state, national and even global scale.

Mammals

Mammal populations have been the worst affected since the arrival of Europeans. Of all the world’s mammals made extinct over the past 400 years, one-third were endemic to Australia. The introduction of competitive herbivores (e.g. rabbits, domestic stock) and exotic predators (cats and foxes), coupled with persecution by early European settlers and competition for resources by introduced species, have all contributed to the loss of mammal species throughout Australia during the past 240 years.

The Rufous Bettong once occurred throughout much of the Box–Ironbark country. This specimen in the Museum of Victoria was collected near Bendigo around 1900.

The White-footed Rabbit-rat, once believed to be reasonably common throughout Victorian woodlands, including Box–Ironbark areas, declined to extinction within just three decades of European colonisation. The Rufous Bettong also once occurred throughout much of the Box–Ironbark ecosystem but disappeared from Victoria during the early 1900s. Among the last records were those collected as specimens, now in the Museum of Victoria, from Violet Town in 1874 and from near Bendigo around 1900. Gone, too, are the Eastern Quoll and the Dingo, both which were unable to withstand the earliest changes to the landscape and died out across the Box–Ironbark region within decades of European settlement.

Despite these major impacts and loss of species, 28 species of native mammals remain in Victoria’s Box–Ironbark ecosystem. Marsupials comprise half of the native mammals (14 species) and include many ground-dwelling species such as kangaroos, wallabies and dunnarts, as well as arboreal species such as possums and gliders. Some ground-dwellers, such as the Swamp Wallaby and Eastern Grey Kangaroo, have increased in number and expanded their range throughout the region and are among the most frequently observed mammals. Others, such as the Yellow-footed Antechinus and Common Dunnart, have been adversely affected and, particularly the latter, are rarely seen.

The White-footed Rabbit-rat, illustrated here by John Gould, declined to extinction within just three decades of European colonisation. Source: La Trobe Picture Collection, State Library of Victoria.

The Koala occurs throughout the Box–Ironbark country but is more common in moister forests to the south and east.

The Krefft’s Glider is found throughout the Box–Ironbark region, especially in areas where there are large hollow-bearing trees required for den sites. Formerly known as the Sugar Glider, this species was reclassified recently after taxonomic revision.

Arboreal species are particularly well represented. There are seven: ranging from the tiny, rarely seen Feather-tailed Glider, to the robust and familiar Common Brush-tailed Possum. Most arboreal species depend on tree hollows and now are largely restricted to localities that contain mature trees and suitable hollows (see Chapter 2).

The region’s placental mammals are dominated by insectivorous bats, referred to as microbats, with 11 species present in the Box–Ironbark. Most of these bats are common and widespread, though they are difficult to observe due to their nocturnal activity, small size and habit of sheltering during the day in roost sites in tree hollows and under bark. Microbats are voracious predators of small aerial invertebrates. They are highly mobile and can use separate areas for roosting and foraging – some individuals may travel distances of 10 km or more to forage each night. One large fruit-eating bat – the Grey-headed Flying-fox – has recently colonised parts of the Box–Ironbark region, whereas in the past it was an irregular vagrant, as is the Little Red Flying-fox.

The Short-beaked Echidna and the Platypus, both monotremes, also occur in the Box–Ironbark region. The Echidna is widespread and moderately common, but the Platypus is extremely rare and restricted to permanent watercourses and habitats not strictly considered as Box–Ironbark. These stream habitats are shared with the semi-aquatic Water Rat, which can also use adjacent terrestrial habitats.

Natural distribution patterns

The distribution patterns displayed by mammals of the Box–Ironbark ecosystem can be divided into four main categories. First, there are species typically associated with wet forests of the Great Dividing Range of south-eastern Australia such as the Koala and Bare-nosed Wombat. These are mainly found in southern parts of the ecosystem. More common species representative of moister forests include the Eastern Ring-tailed Possum and Feather-tailed Glider. Second, there is a group of mammals characteristic of dry inland environments, such as mallee habitats, including species such as the Western Grey Kangaroo and Inland Broad-nosed Bat. Third, there is a group of mammals that are usually associated with temperate woodlands – the habitats characteristic of the Box–Ironbark ecosystem. Species such as the Brush-tailed Phascogale, Yellow-footed Antechinus and Squirrel Glider have a Victorian distribution that is centred on Box–Ironbark habitats and they are commonly regarded as ‘woodland specialists’. The final group of mammals consists of species that are widespread throughout many habitat types in Victoria, including the Box–Ironbark ecosystem. This group includes the Common Brush-tailed Possum, Krefft’s Glider (formerly Sugar Glider), Lesser Long-eared Bat and Short-beaked Echidna.

Birds

Box–Ironbark forests and woodlands are renowned for their rich and varied bird life. Some 191 species of native birds (excluding waterbirds) are known from Victoria’s Box–Ironbark ecosystem. Most of these (86%) regularly breed in Box–Ironbark habitats or migrate to the region each year. Other species, including rare vagrants such as the Grey Falcon, Crescent Honeyeater and Bell Miner, occur only very occasionally.

Several bird species have suffered a marked decline in population size and experienced severe range contraction in the Box–Ironbark ecosystem since European settlement. The Regent Honeyeater, reported to be widespread and common until the 1970s, is now critically endangered on a national scale. Areas that once supported large breeding flocks of this colourful honeyeater now support only small numbers of birds infrequently (see case study, page 26). Another charismatic species of the Box–Ironbark country, the Swift Parrot, has similarly undergone a dramatic and concerning decline, particularly in recent years (see case study, page 25). Malleefowl were once substantially more common in pockets of suitable habitat but now remain only in very low numbers at a single site.

Numerous other woodland species are experiencing range contractions and population declines. The Crested Bellbird, for example, was commonly recorded in the forests surrounding Chiltern until the 1970s, but the population dwindled rapidly and the species was last recorded there in 1991. The Grey-crowned Babbler has declined markedly in the Box–Ironbark woodlands and elsewhere