Artificial Intelligence

By Miguel D'Addario

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a science with a wide study field dedicated to the study of the human brain and intelligence, with the purpose of mathematically modeling different logic and processes that help to facilitate and automate problems in different knowledge areas. It's applications are varied and are present in many fields on which its main model is the human being, and the problems presented need to be taken into account.

• Language: English
• Publisher: BadPress
• Release date: Sep 10, 2021
• ISBN: 9781667412535

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About the author

Miguel D’Addario is Italian. With a degree in Journalism, Master in Sociology and PHD in Social Communication by the Complutense University of Madrid. He has developed his experience in many teaching fields, from Professional Formation to University level, both in Iberoamerica and Europe. His books can be found in different study centers and libraries all around the world, for example in San Pablo University of Peru, Santo Domingo University of Dominican Republic, San Gregorio University of Ecuador, University of Valencia, Spain National Library, Argentina National Library, Texas University, Complutense University of Madrid, Toronto University, Canada, Deusto University, National Autonomous University of Mexico, San Marcos Mayor National University (Peru), Illinois University, Kansas University, libraries from Madrid’s Community, Castilla and Leon, Andalusia and Basque Country, British National Library, Harvard University, United States Congress Library. PhD and essayist have received awards and mentions from writers’ associations, Cultural Centers, Universities and related sites. Equally, as Speaker, Conferencist and Researcher, in Universities, Educational Centers, public and private. Author of artistic books: Poetry, Tales and Stories. Author of educational books, from various levels and subjects. Author of philosophy books, ontology and metaphysics. Author of Self-help and Coaching books. His books are distributed all around the five Continents, they are a recurrent consult in libraries of the world and are inscribed in catalogues, ISBNs and International Bibliographic bases. They are translated to many languages and can be found on international bookstores, both in paper and electronic version.

Websites where to meet and acquire the author’s work.

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Introduction

The Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a science with a wide study field, dedicated to the study of the human brain and the intelligence, with the purpose of mathematically modelling the different logic and processes which help to facilitate and automate problems in the different areas of knowledge. It has many applications, and they are present in many fields on which the principal model is the human being, also it is necessary to take into account the different problems that it can present. Its generally considered that the far origin of Artificial Intelligence can be traced back to the attempts to create automata, to simulate the shape and skills of the human beings. But the immediate origin of the concept and the criteria for AI development can be traced back to the intuition of English mathematician Alan Turing and the appellative Artificial Intelligence is due to McCarthy, one of the members of the Darmouth Group, a group of researchers which was reunited in 1956 on Darmouth College (United States), with the purpose of discussing the construction of machines that were not limited to make prefixed calculations, but to genuinely smart operations. On first place, we will check some general definitions of intelligence, before trying to define artificial intelligence. Intelligence is the aptitude to create relationships. This creation may be purely in a sensory way like in animal intelligence; it also can be on an intellectual way, as in the human being, who brings into game language and concepts. It also can be conceptualized as the skill to acquire, comprehend and apply knowledge; or as the attitude to remember, think and reason. AI is the new generation of computer technology, characterized not only for his architecture (hardware), but for its capabilities. The emphasis of previous generations was on numeric computers for scientific or business applications. The new generation of computer technology also includes symbolic manipulation, with the purpose of emulating smart behavior; and, parallel computing, to trying to achieve real time results. The predominant capability of the new generation, also known as the Fifth Generation, is the ability to emulate (and maybe, in some cases, overpass) certain smart functions of the human being. The Artificial Intelligence started as the result of the research in cognitive psychology and mathematical logic. It has been focused over the explanation of mental work and the construction of algorithms for solving general purpose problems. Point of view which favors the abstraction and generality. The Artificial Intelligence is a combination of computer science, physiology and philosophy, so general and wide as that, it reunites many fields (robotics, expert systems, for example), all of which have in common the creation of machines that can think. The idea of building a machine that could execute tasks perceived as requirements of the human intelligence, is attractive. The tasks that have been studied from this point of view, include games, language translation, language comprehension, failure diagnostics, robotics, assessment supply in various subjects. That’s how the database administration systems, increasingly sophisticated, the data structures and the development of insertion algorithms, erased and data location, as well as the attempts to create machines capable of doing tasks that are thought as common in the scope of the human intelligence, created the term Artificial Intelligence in 1956. Theoric fundamental works were the development of mathematical algorithms by Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts, in 1943, needed for enabling the task of sorting, or a general functioning, of a neuron network. In 1949, Donald Hebb developed a learning algorithm for the neuron networks mentioned, creating, in conjunction with the works of McCulloch and Pitts, the creationist school. This school is considered as the origin of the Artificial Intelligence, however, it had little treatment for many years, giving way to symbolic reasoning based in production rules, which is known as expert systems.

Man has constantly tried to explain the human thoughts, on which way the human being is capable of perceive, understand, analyze and manipulate a world full of mysteries. Artificial intelligence tries to build and not just comprehend a smart entity. AI is one of the most recent sciences, it began to being studied little after World War II, its name was given in 1956. Artificial intelligence was born in this year in Dartmouth, Hannover, United States, in a meeting were those who would later be the principal researchers of the area participated, it was drafted a proposal on were first appeared the term «artificial intelligence». Its fields still have many gaps to be closed, many things to be worked on for which could be many Einsteins working full time.

According to Professor Jose Malpica, artificial intelligence is the branch of the computer sciences that studies the needed software and hardware for simulating the human behavior and comprehension. AI has many objectives among which can be discussed and explain the necessity of creating machines with artificial intelligence that are capable of discern, think and reason in the same way humans do, simulating their feelings and that are capable of being conscious, from here arise many and big problems for defining intelligence in many ways, analyzing from many points of view, one of the problems that is complicated to simulate is the conscience, one human quality which makes us aware of our own existence.  Artificial Intelligence, the field where Marvin Minsky started working in 1956, is closely linked to computing and other fields of computing knowledge, it pretends to have the possibility of creating smart machines and distinguishing two types of intelligence, natural and artificial. During the AI beginnings, it existed a great expectation around the same, with the intention of a progress on an artificial intelligence similar to the one of the people, getting a computer capable of feeling, reasoning and be conscious by his own. Due to the technology present at that times of software and hardware, it was thought that this could be a very easy thing to accomplish as well as to express this phenomenon computationally, this stream of investigation will be known as strong AI, AI had began with very ambitious objectives, which in the 90s had a setback because the practical results didn’t support theory, in many cases, all the ideas and objectives had become in simple speculations. Today it has been possible to simulate various situations with hardware and software development, like decision making in commercial subjects. In chess games which beat humans, among other punctual problems.

However, after fifty years of AI, scientists havent been able to simulate behaviors that are simple to humans, like intuition and conscience that remains without progress, today, debate continues about if it is possible to create a computer with reasoning and conscience.  

¿What is the Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial Intelligence may have many ways to define it, the most important ones are the mental processes and what can be said as the ideal form of intelligence, reasoning.

The goal of this science is to build computing models capable of having behaviors defined as smart, on which engineers specialized on computing, neurosciences and behavioral sciences, work.  

Systems that think as uters think:  «The new and exciting effort to make computers think... machines with minds, in the widest literal sense» (Haugeland, 1985).

«Automation are activities which we link to human thought processes, activities like decision making, problem resolution, learning... » (Bellman, 1978).

Systems that think rationally: «The study of mental faculties through the use of computing models» (Charniak y McDermott, 1985)

«The study of calculations makes possible to perceive, reason and act » (Winston, 1992).

Systems that act like humans: «The art of developing machines able to perform functions, that when, performed by humans, require intelligence » (Kurzweil, 1990).

«The study on how to make computers perform tasks, which, by the moment, humans do better» (Rich y Knigh, 1991).

Systems that act rationally: «The computing intelligence is the study of the design of smart agents» (Poole et al... 1998).

«AI...  is related with smart conducts on artifacts» (Nilsson, 1998).

How to know if a machine is smart?

Turings Test

There is a test, invented by Alan Turing for cataloguing if a machine is smart or not.

This test avoids many and maybe controverted qualities, to define if the machine has artificial intelligence.

Turings Test is about a game where they will be two persons and a machine in different rooms, one person will be the judge, this person will ask questios to the other two in order to recognize the human and the machine, without knowing which one is which, and with only labels, X, Y, will be communicated between them via messages. In the event that the judge, after having the conversation, oesnt know which one is the human and which one the machine, this last one will have passed Turings Test and will be declared as smart.

J. Searle Chinese room

It exists an experiment used to refute the validity of the Turings Test, it is known as the Shinese room, proposed by John Searle. The experiment tries to explain that a machine can make smart acts, but at the same time, it is not conscious of it, meaning that it isnt able to discern or understand what the machine is doing, it just follows,