Promoting Sustainable Democratic Consolidation in Sierra Leone: Two Steps Backwards, One Step Forward?

By Abubakar Hassan Kargbo

The Republic of Sierra Leone is situated along the West African Coast. It is
bounded on the north and north east by Guinea on the east and south by Liberia
and on the West by the Atlantic Ocean. Sierra Leone has a total land area of
72,000 km of which about 75% is cultivable. According to the 2015 census it has
a population of 7,092,113 million people. In 2018 the country was divided into
five regions including the Northern, Northern Western, Eastern and Southern
provinces. The provinces are further divided into sixteen districts and a total of
190 chiefdoms headed by Paramount chiefs.

Sierra Leone is characterized by favorable climate in terms of wet and dry seasons,
which makes it mainly suitable for agriculture production and the growing of
different types of crops in the country as a whole. Sierra Leone is suitable for
cattle rearing; groundnut and cashew nut farming, particularly in the north,
the eastern region grows coffee and cacao and the south, cacao, ginger and
piassava, oil-palm, rice, cassava and sweet potatoes all of which are grown in
every part of the country. The country has vast acres of arable land for agriculture
production. Apart from this agriculture potential, Sierra Leone is very rich in
natural resources such as diamonds, gold, iron ore, bauxite, rutile, forest as well
as marine resources etc. most of these resources can be found in both south
and east of the country and recent, the north also has discovered some of these
minerals such as bauxite and iron ore, diamonds have also been discovered.

Sierra Leone is among the leading producers of Iron Ore, Diamonds and Bauxite
in the world

• Language: English
• Publisher: AuthorHouse UK
• Release date: Oct 21, 2019
• ISBN: 9781728393247

Abubakar Hassan Kargbo

Abubakar Hassan Kargbo is currently the Chairman of the National Commission for Democracy. He lectures at the School of Social Sciences, Postgraduate Studies, Njala University, in Sierra Leone. Prior to his joining the Njiala University he taught International Relations, Ancient and Medieval Political thought at the Fourah Bay College University of Sierra Leone in the 1980 and International Economic Relations, Development Studies and Government at the Milton Margai College of Education and Technology respectively. Dr. Abubakar Kargbo completed his Doctorate in Jurisprudence (JU.Dr) International law and Organisation in 1977 at the Charles University, Law Faculty in Prague, Czech Republic. Prior to receiving his doctorate, Dr. Kargbo received his Masters Degree in International Relations and sat to the First State Examination from the same University in 1973. Dr. Kargbo is broadcaster, researcher, writer and consultant. He was the coordinator of the Core Team that put together the Vision 2025 document for Sierra Leone. He has presented numerous papers at conferences and workshops on topics on the media and governance, trade union issues, electoral systems, globalization and the third world, conflict and development. He is also the Chairman of the Board Campaign for Good Governance and NGO in Sierra Leone and was Commissioner Independent Media Commission.

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© 2019 Abubakar Hassan Kargbo. All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means without the written permission of the author.

Published by AuthorHouse 10/18/2019

ISBN: 978-1-7283-9325-4 (sc)

ISBN: 978-1-7283-9326-1 (hc)

ISBN: 978-1-7283-9324-7 (e)

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Because of the dynamic nature of the Internet, any web addresses or links contained in this book may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid. The views expressed in this work are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher, and the publisher hereby disclaims any responsibility for them.

To the entire Kargbo family including Fanthia Kargbo, Pa Morlai Kargbo, Pa Wathia, Ya Frankrypepper, Ya Formaray, Yam Ballay, Ya Fatmata, and Ya Utumah.

Contents

Preface

Chapter 1   Background and Context

Country Profile

Brief Constitutional Development

Conceptual Framework

State of Sierra Leone

Combating Corruption and Poverty

Liberalism versus Democracy

Dependency School

Democratic Good Governance since 1996

Principles of Good Governance

Chapter 2   The Concept of Democratic Consolidation

Challenges of Consolidating Democracy and Good Governance

Consolidating Democracy and the External Stakeholders

Promoting Good Governance in Mano River Union States

The Mano River Union and Democratic Consolidation

Democratic Consolidation in Sierra Leone since Independence

Chapter 3   Institutional Consolidation in Sierra Leone

Constitution-Making and Review

Governance Institutions

Significance of Institutions of Governance

Core Institutions of Governance in Sierra Leone

Executive/Head of State

Structure and Organisation

Parliament/Legislature

Representative Democracy

Structure and Organisation

Challenges

Independence

Transparency and Accountability

Integrity

Role of Parliament of Sierra Leone: Legislation

National Budget

Parliament and Democratic Consolidation

The Concept of the Judiciary

Challenges of the Judiciary: Politicisation

Delay in Dispensing Justice

Low Jurisdiction of Magistrates

Poor Conditions of Service

Shortage of Qualified Staff

Absence of Law Reporting

Judiciary and Democratic Consolidation

Electoral System in Sierra Leone

Recommendations

Chapter 4   Representative Consolidation in Sierra Leone

Political Parties in Sierra Leone

Political Parties in Developing Areas

The Evolution of Political Parties in Sierra Leone

Beginning of Political Party Formations 1947–60

The Formation of the Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP)

1951 Elections

Threshold of Independence

Formation of the Elections before Independence Movement

The 1962 General Election

Party Politics in Sierra Leone since Independence

Inter-Party Competition and Relations, 1964-67

The 1967 General Election and Its Aftermath

NRC and Opposition 1967–1968

Restoration of Civilian Rule in 1968

The APC in Power 1968–92: SLPP/APC Relations

The National Provisional Ruling Council

Civilian Rule Restored 1996

2002 Elections

Political Transition

Political Parties and the Democratic Environment

Political Parties and the Electoral System

Political Parties and Democratic Consolidation

Political Party Financing

Political Parties and Gender

Winner Takes All

Ethnicity and Political Parties

Internal Democracy and Party Consolidation

Political Parties and Challenges of Democratic Consolidation

Political Parties and National Cohesion

Political Parties and the PR System

The Role of Civil Society in the Consolidation of Democracy

The Lomé Agreement

Lomé and Civil Society

The Concept of Civil Society

Conceptualising the State of Civil Society

CSOs over the Years

Membership

CSOs and the State

Civil Society and Democratic Consolidation

Civil Society in Sierra Leone Today

Resources of CSOs

Rights

Chapter 5   Behavioural Consolidation

The Military in Sierra Leone

Politicisation of the Military

The Sierra Leone Police Force

Politicisation of the Police Force

Paramilitary Force

Chapter 6   Consolidation of Civic and Political Culture

Attitudinal Change

The Role of Media in Democratic Consolidation

Historical Development of the Media Landscape

Conclusion

References

Preface

Since independence on 27 April 1961, Sierra Leone has been grappling with how to consolidate its democracy, a crucial legacy of British colonialism to the country. For decades, this process of deepening democracy has been the country’s greatest challenge. This has been against the backdrop that Sierra Leone, at the time of colonisation, not only had no democratic past as we know it in the world today, but lacked the capability to promote the democratic ideals bequeathed to it at the day of independence. Perhaps this has been responsible for what has been argued as the false start at the initial phase of our independence, which was characterised by coups counter-coups, and bad governance, as manifested by the one-party system of government. This period laid the foundation for eleven years of civil war. Such an environment, as perceived by certain Sierra Leoneans, led them to conclude that the country was not ripe for independence. However, others subscribed to another view, arguing that the task of deepening democracy rests squarely on all Sierra Leoneans, who must put all hands on deck.

This book is an attempt to critically analyse the challenges Sierra Leone has faced in its bid to consolidate democratic governance since independence, and why. What meaningful efforts have been made by past governments to promote an effective, efficient, and sustainable democratic environment in Sierra Leone?

The book is divided into six chapters covering the following topics: an introduction, democratic consolidation, institutional consolidation, representational consolidation, behavioural consolidation, civic/political culture, and a conclusion.

Chapter 1 depicts the historical background of Sierra Leone and its relationship with liberal democracy, dependence, and good governance. The emphasis is to clearly demonstrate that the country continues to face huge challenges in these areas. There cannot be a quick fix, but there is urgent need to change the narrative.

Chapter 2 looks at the concept of democratic consolidation. I have posited different theoretical standpoints regarding the challenges the country has faced in the practice and consolidation of democratic good governance, even in the Mano River Union states, during past decades. The political economy of these countries can impact member states of the union, and there is need for cooperation among these states. There seems to be a deficit; Sierra Leone and the Mano River Union states must therefore do more to promote and consolidate democratic good governance.

Chapter 3 gives a critical analysis of institutional consolidation. The importance of governance institutions as the main pillars of governance infrastructure in Sierra Leone is highlighted. Such institutions must not only to be adequately capacitated but also not politicised, especially the legislature, executive, and judiciary on the one hand, and governance commissions on the other. This chapter underscores the tendency for these important institutions to become politicised, which undermines state institutions and thus is a recipe for bad governance, anathema to democratic good governance and consolidation.

Chapter 4 looks at representative consolidation. Not only the role and importance of political parties in the process is critically examined, but also their intra- and interpersonal relationships. The electoral system is a particular focus. Sierra Leone is currently practicing a ‘first past the post’ electoral system, which means the winner takes all after an election. Indications do not augur well for this system promoting democratic consolidation, national unity, and cohesion. The relationship between ethnicity and politics is critically analysed, because it seem to be gaining momentum in the body politic. I give prominence to the role of civil society in promoting democratic consolidation and good governance. Democracy will be significantly improved when there is gender parity in political parties and women have been given the opportunity to be represented in the legislature.

Chapter 5 takes a critical look at behavioural consolidation. It deals with the role and psyche of the security forces in Sierra Leone, including the Republic of Sierra Leone Military Force, the Sierra Leone Police, paramilitary groups, cliques, secret societies, and other groups have the potential either to promote or to undermine democratic consolidation and good governance. Politicisation of the security forces remains a threat. It is a recipe for these forces to undermine the democratic consolidation process, and must be stopped.

Chapter 6 deals with the areas of civic and political culture. I stress the need to accelerate the civic education drive, since Sierra Leone has not been significantly manifesting a civic culture that will complement the ideals of democratic good governance as these are espoused today by the international community. I argue that despite the fact that Sierra Leone has a political culture; it is to a very large extent not in consonance with democratic good governance. The role of the media in Sierra Leone remains very crucial in the process to effect attitudinal change aimed at promoting and consolidating democracy and good governance.

The conclusion of the book takes a look at key uncertainties that have the propensity to destroy the efforts of the country to deepen democratic good governance, such as increasing national unity and cohesion, fighting corruption and poverty, strengthening decentralised governance, and so on. I underscore the need for Sierra Leoneans to become more patriotic and nationalistic in order to strengthen national unity and cohesion, which remains crucial for peace, socio-economic development, and political development.

Chapter 1

Background and Context

Country Profile

The Republic of Sierra Leone is situated along the West African coast. It is bordered on the north and north-east by Guinea on the east and south by Liberia, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. Sierra Leone has a total land area of seventy-two thousand kilometres, of which about 75 per cent is cultivable. According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 7,092,113 people. In 2018, the country was divided into five regions, including the northern, north-western, western, eastern, and southern regions. The regions are further divided into sixteen districts, and a total of 190 chiefdoms are headed by paramount chiefs.

Sierra Leone is characterised by a favourable climate in terms of wet and dry seasons, which makes it largely suitable for agricultural production of different types of crops. Sierra Leone is suitable for cattle rearing; groundnut and cashew farming, particularly in the north; coffee farming in the eastern region; and cacao farming in the south. Ginger, piassava, oil palm, rice, cassava, and sweet potatoes are grown in every part of the country. Sierra Leone has vast acres of arable land.

Apart from this agricultural potential, Sierra Leone is very rich in natural resources, such as diamonds, gold, iron ore, bauxite, rutile, forest products, and marine resources. Most of these resources can be found in the southern and eastern parts of the country. Recently, minerals have also been discovered in the north. Sierra Leone is one the world’s leading producers of iron ore, diamonds, and bauxite.

Brief Constitutional Development

Prior to colonisation, what is now known as the territory of Sierra Leone was characterised by scattered communities and tribes that are found in present-day Liberia and Guinea. These communities were primordial, and they lived in accordance with their historically determined customs and traditions. They had their own administrative systems headed by traditional rulers and secret societies, such as the Poro, the Bondo and Sanday, and the Wonde societies.

Before Africa was colonised, these communities were victimised by the slave trade, which led to the export of able-bodied men and women to sugar-cane plantations in the Americas. These communities were colonised without their consent and held under direct colonial rule for almost two hundred years. At the end of the slave trade Sierra Leone became one of the countries were freed slaves were settled to be known as Freetown which served as its capital.

In 1787, British trading companies arrived in Sierra Leone. Actual colonisation of Freetown began in 1808. Freetown became the capital of Sierra Leone after the extension of the British protectorate in 1894, covering the hinterland.

The British succeeded in creating a local government administration by appointing district officers and paramount chiefs to govern various areas of the protectorate. Between 1896 and 1946, the protectorate was comprised of three provinces, twelve districts, and 149 chiefdoms. These administrative divisions have not only been maintained but have been unaltered by the successive governments of Sierra Leone since independence in 1961. However, in 2017, as a result of de-amalgamation, the chiefdoms were increased to 190 and two districts were added, Karene and Falaba, bringing the total to sixteen districts.

In 1924, the British promulgated Sierra Leone’s first constitution, which lasted until 1951. Then a second constitution came into being and was modified in 1953. The 1953 constitution witnessed an increase in Sierra Leone’s representation, and the title of prime minister was introduced.

In 1958, Sierra Leone ratified its third constitution based on the Westminster model. It is characterised by a prime minister, who is the leader of the majority party, and a cabinet fully responsible for the country’s legislation.

Independence was granted on 27 April 1961, at Lancaster House in Britain. The terms were negotiated by a coalition of parties and other stakeholders, led by the Sierra Leone People’s Party. With a population just over two million, Sierra Leone embarked on the process of promoting democracy and good governance. This transition was fraught with several challenges, such as bad governance, military coups and counter coups, and eleven years of civil war. What was the level of investment in the government’s framework before and immediately after independence? Assessing this will provide the means to critically assess the environment in which Sierra Leone attained independence.

British colonial investment in Sierra Leone concentrated on the Crown colony and its predominant residents—namely, the Krios. The disparities between the colony and the protectorate were conspicuous in the field of education. Although the vast majority of Sierra Leone territories and population were part of the protectorate, half of primary schools were located in the colony in 1947. It was mostly the Krios who were the beneficiaries of higher education (Truth and Reconciliation Commission Report, Sierra Leone 2004).

According to Mamdani(1996)the discriminatory aspects of the colonial period resulted from and were strengthened by the British tradition of indirect rule. Britain recognised only the Crown colonies as part of the British Empire. Protectorates were divided into many small chiefdoms, which the Crown indirectly controlled. Under this rule, instead of establishing a strong centralised bureaucracy, the colonial government allowed the most important chiefs, known as paramount chiefs, to have considerable power. This power was characterised by decentralised despotism, a term coined by Mamdani (1996). Under British protection, the chieftaincy became an inherited lifetime position. The chiefs played principal roles in local economic development, exerting real authority over the indigenous population by enforcing their customary rights (Keen 2003; Denov 2010; Peters 2011).

It could be argued that before independence, Sierra Leone did not benefit from the substantial investments necessary to enable the country to transition smoothly from a colonial protectorate to an independent state. The repercussions of these failures were felt for decades following Sierra Leone’s independence.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of this book consists of related theories of the state, governance, and democratic consolidation, including liberal and dependency theories. Theories on democratic consolidation written by Juan J. Linz, Alfred Stepan, Larry Diamond, Hans-Jurgen Puhle, Andreas Schedler, and Joleen Steven Kotze are looked at with a view to critically assessing their effect on democratic consolidation in developing countries such as Sierra Leone. The state of democracy in Sierra Leone is also measured by critically analysing its level of democratic consciousness and its actual practise since independence.

State of Sierra Leone

One cannot successfully discuss this topic without looking at the nature of the evolution of the state of Sierra Leone over time and its essence. In 1462, the Portuguese explorer Pedro de Centra named a portion of the west coast of Africa Sierra Leoa, meaning ‘Lion Mountain’. This area was then part of the great empires of Mali and Songhai. They were characterised by scattered communities under African kings. These communities not only endured intertribal or community wars, but also traded with one another