My Search for Meaning: A Meditation into the History of Western Philosophical Inquiry.

By Laurence C. Jeffrey

The text “My search for meaning” was inspired by the author’s early curiosity about life’s meaning and his reflection on several worldly experiences traversing the continents of North and South America, Europe, Asia and Africa. His interest in, and studies of western academic philosophy provides the schema that brings to light the crux of his discovery, and the text is intended to share with the reader the author’s understanding of life. The author hopes that by reading this text it would inspire others to explore philosophical ideas in a broader context.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Sep 12, 2019
• ISBN: 9781796058857

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Copyright © 2019 by Laurence C. Jeffrey.

Library of Congress Control Number:   2019913869

ISBN:             Hardcover               978-1-7960-5887-1

                       Softcover                 978-1-7960-5886-4

                       eBook                       978-1-7960-5885-7

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

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Rev. date: 09/12/2019

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CONTENTS

Preface

Introduction

References

Chapter 1     The Early Philosophers—Pre-Socratic Era

Socrates (469–399 BC)

References

Chapter 2     Epistemology / Tools for Finding the Basis for Knowledge

Rationalism

Plato’s Rationalism

Plato’s Theory of Form / Theory of Ideas

René Descartes’s Rationalism

Empiricism

Classical Empiricism

Modern Empiricism

Logical Positivism

References

Chapter 3     Metaphysics

The First Metaphysicians

Dualism

Plato (428–348 BC)

Aristotle (384–322 BC)

St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274)

Materialism

Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Philosophical Thought on Metaphysical Reality

Existentialism

Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855)

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900)

Albert Camus (1913–1960)

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980)

Psychoanalysis

Phenomenology

Structuralism

Pragmatism

Reference

Chapter 4     Philosophy of Religion

The Ontological Proof

The Cosmological Proof

The Teleological Proof

Argument for God from Religious Experience

The Argument about Evil

The Crusade for Progress—Gottfried Leibniz

The Free Will Defense

Cause and Effect—Baruch Spinoza

The Pascal Wager

References

Chapter 5     Free Will and Determinism

Determinism

Compatibilism

Libertarianism

Existentialism

Good and Evil

Plato

St. Thomas Aquinas

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900)

References

Chapter 6     Moral Philosophy

Plato on the Concept of Morality

City/Soul

Psychology of Morality

Stages of Moral Development

Laurence Kohlberg (Moral Development)

Carol Gilligan—the Care Perspective

Types of Cognitive Moral Theories

Ethical Relativism

Ethical Subjectivism / Individual Relativism

The Root (Underlying Foundation) of Ethical Subjectivism

Problems/Flaws with the Ethical Subjectivist Theory

Cultural Relativism

Underlying Foundation of Cultural Relativism

Critique of Cultural Relativism

Sociological Relativism

Religion and Morality

Divine Command Theory

Critique of Divine Command Theory

Civil Religion and National Morality

Universal Moral Theories

Ethical Egoism

Ayn Rand and Ethical Egoism

Strengths and Limitations of Ethical Egoism

Utilitarianism

Strengths and Limitations of Utilitarianism

Deontology: The Ethics of Duty

Immanuel Kant’s Duty Ethics

Modification to the Deontological Theory

Critiques of Deontology

Natural Law Theory

Rights-Based Ethics (Social Contract Theory)

Virtue Ethics

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900)

Care Ethics

Is There an Adequate Moral Theory?

References

Chapter 7     Political and Social Philosophy

Society and the State

Society

The State

Sovereignty

Dictatorial Sovereignty

Individual Sovereignty

Popular Sovereignty

Theories of the State

Classical Liberalism

Socialism/Communism

Fascism

Social Contract Theory

Contrasting Classical Liberalism, Socialism, and Fascism

The Purpose of Government

Popular Sovereignty

Classical Anarchism

Limited Government (Minimal State)

Plato’s Social Philosophy

Aristotle’s Political Philosophy

Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Political Philosophy

John Stuart Mill’s Political Philosophy

Social Philosophy

Communism

Minimal State

Liberalism

References

Chapter 8     The Philosophy of Art (Aesthetics)

Analytic Philosophy of Art

Philosophers on Art

Plato

Aristotle

Existentialism—Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980)

Karl Marx on Art

Sigmund Freud

Wittgenstein on Art

References

Epilogue

Glossary

Supplemental Readings

PREFACE

Socrates, one of the forefathers of Western and moral philosophy, once said, The unexamined life is not worth living. This text is the result of the arousal of my curiosity about the meaning of life, which began during my teenage years while I traversed the northern shores of Georgetown, Guyana, in South America and through the continued introspection of the norms of my community. This quest to discover the meaning of life is not only rooted in my early upbringing but is also a reflection of my worldly travel and my profound interest in philosophical inquiry.

In writing this book, it is my intent to share with the reader the journey that has brought me to where I now stand in my search for meaning. The reader will be introduced to the subject areas of philosophical thinking, but the intent is not to make this a text on the history of philosophy. There will be a narrative around my early inquiry—a precursor to Eastern metaphysics. I will share with the reader several of my profound experiences during my travels around the world and the enlightenment that I have experienced through my study of Western academic philosophy.

The text that follows is not to provide a unified account of the various philosophical theories but to share with the reader the fundamental ideas and issues that continue to influence my views in life. There are, of course, many unresolved questions and controversies that exist, but these revolve against the background of other personal experiences. Although there will be significant references to the various philosophical issues, many of these fundamental issues are still being explored and are open to debate. Among them are the issues associated with epistemology, metaphysics, morality, good and evil, the self (Who am I? Does life have meaning?), freedom, autonomy, and self-respect.

You will find herein several contending ideas, theories, and arguments—many of which I find more appealing than others. However, my own views may at times influence the presentation, which could be the result of the trajectory of the influences in my early life. But I will try to present the ideas fairly and with an open mind and resist as much as I can to pass judgment. Philosophy is foremost about the exercise of reason, and I want the reader to embrace this idea in an unbiased manner. If this book is successful, I would like the reader to explore the philosophical ideas shared herein in a broader context.

INTRODUCTION

Since my teenage years growing up in Georgetown, Guyana, I have been intrigued by the notion of self-identification and the pursuit of the meaning of life, and to find that meaning, I have been confronted with the fundamental question of whether there is a purpose to life. This quest took me on a philosophical journey involving a preoccupation with the study of epistemology and metaphysics as well as axiology, which includes the issue of morality or what we will call the moral life. Hence, understanding the basics of argumentation and critical thinking became pertinent to my inquiry. Therefore, the text that follows is an account of the journey in my search for the meaning of life.

My early education was based upon the British aspect of a didactic viewpoint, which emphasized the acquisition of knowledge or what may be considered as content to remember—an understanding of the basic ideas of a subject without encouraging or stimulating critical thinking. This educational process inhibited student-to-teacher interaction as well as child-to-parent communication since much emphasis was placed on understanding the basics and following the rules/dictates and guidelines of those in authority, including our elders. My curiosity was not limited by the dictates of authority because I perceived that there were other ideas still to be explored. I therefore embarked on a critical analysis of what I had been told up to that point in my life and could no longer resist asking myself, Why? What did they really mean? This search for a better understanding went beyond the limits of my teachers and parents. I also questioned the sermons of the priest in my church. In short, I began to question everything, and this quest for meaning led me to begin my own personal journey of inquiry.

By coincidence, I came across the writings of Dr. Tuesday Lobsang Rampa (1910–1981),¹ whose work focused on discovering the serious flaws in humanity and his belief, as he saw it, in the continued self-destruction of mankind. Dr. Rampa, a Tibetan monk, was dedicated to living his life within the confines of the laws of nature. His intent was to help humans overcome their ignorance and their ideas about an unjust, cruel, and unfair natural world. He pointed out that when our lives seem to be in turmoil and when we find ourselves fighting through this turmoil, it is because we are living against the forces of nature. He felt that if humans tried to live within the bounds of nature and understand its laws, they would be able to live their lives in harmony, making them happier, healthier, and more successful.

Dr. Rampa’s views on human struggle and his belief that his task on earth was to help humans experience the true value of their lives were, for me, quite intriguing. As a result, I read three of his publications, starting with You Forever (1963), which was a guide that provided an understanding of the psychic world and the foundation that could lead to the development of our parapsychic abilities. Reading You Forever provided me with the inspiration to explore the nature of my own thoughts (i.e., what thought is); an understanding on how to control beliefs; and how to manage stress and conflicting emotions. I also gained insightful information about the power of our mind; the power of visualization; the power of imagination; and the law of karma. His publication Beyond the Tenth (1963), which focused on the astral plane and life on the other side, was an exploration of the spiritual world. My third encounter with Dr. Rampa’s work was his publication The Candlelight (1973), which focused on our ability, as humans, to learn and taught us how to direct our thoughts. It looked at the impact of drugs, out-of-body experiences, and several other interesting concepts about human nature. Reading Dr. Rampa’s works opened the path to what has become my passion and quest: to understand the meaning of life.

Before leaving my home and embarking on my worldly travels, I remember a conversation with my late grandmother about an early childhood experience, and her response to me was, Everything is for use and not abuse. As I continue my journey of discovering the meaning of life, I have realized that her reflection was based on the moral value of Aristotle’s virtue ethics although not at a level where it was comprehensively explained. In addition, traveling the world for four continuous years added to my curiosity about the meaning of life. As I studied marine navigation and traversed the world, my life experiences were further jolted by the levels of poverty I observed in Sri Lanka, in countries in East and West Africa, and in South America and from my visit to a historic slave prison on the island of Gorée off the coast of Senegal, from my exposure to apartheid in South Africa where anyone who was not of the white race was considered a second-class citizen and was denied several basic human rights, and from not being allowed to have lunch with my maritime colleagues in several restaurants that were open to patrons. Having grown up in a colonized territory, which was nonindustrialized, I made a decision to pursue a liberal arts education at the City College of New York, where I discovered Western philosophy.

The narrative that follows is my attempt to share with the reader my continued search for meaning. This search will explore epistemology, which is the philosophical search for knowledge through rational and empirical schools of thought. I will look also at metaphysical inquiries that have