Fundamentals of Herbal Medicine: Major Plant Families, Analytical Methods, Materia Medica Volume 2

By Kofi Busia

This book consists of cutting-edge materials drawn from diverse, authoritative sources, which are sequentially arranged into a multipurpose, one-stop shop, user-friendly text. It is divided into four parts as follows:

part 1: historical overview of some indigenous medical systems, an outline of the basic concepts of pharmacognosy, ethnopharmacology, common analytical methods for isolating and characterising phytochemicals, and the different methods for evaluating the quality, purity, and biological and pharmacological activities of plant extracts
part 2: phytochemistry and mode of action of major plant metabolites
part 3: systems-based phytotherapeutics, discussion on how the dysfunction of the main systems of the human body can be treated with herbal remedies
part 4: 153 monographs of some medicinal plants commonly used around the world, including 63 on African medicinal plants.

This book therefore demonstrates the scrupulous intellectual nature of herbalism, depicting it as a scientific discipline in its own right.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris UK
• Release date: Nov 10, 2016
• ISBN: 9781524592820

Kofi Busia

Kofi Busia holds a BSc (Hons.) degree in chemistry and a PhD in biological organic chemistry from Birkbeck, University of London. He also studied basic medical science at the St Bartholomew’s and the Royal London School of Medicine and Dentistry Queen Mary, University of London. Kofi also holds a BSc (Hons.) degree in herbal medicine and a postgraduate certificate in higher education from Middlesex University, UK, where he served as a much-valued senior lecturer in pharmacognosy, herbal pharmacology, herbal pharmacy, and transferrable skills for nine years. He has rare expertise in natural product research, phytochemistry, and phytopharmacology, which he increasingly combines with herbal practice. Between 2004 to 2006, he was the external examiner on the herbal medicine degree programme of University of Lincoln, UK. From August 2005 to January 2007, he was a senior lecturer in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Ghana. Kofi is a member of the Royal Society of Chemistry, founder of the Ghana Association of Medical Herbalists, and a past member of the accreditation panel of the European Herbal Practitioners’ Association. Kofi is currently the programme officer of traditional medicine at the West African Health Organisation. He currently serves on the editorial boards of the Journal of Herbal Medicine, Integrative Medical Case Reports, African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, and the Journal of Zheijiang University Science.

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Copyright © 2016 by Kofi Busia.

Library of Congress Control Number:   2016910795

ISBN:   Hardcover   978-1-5245-9284-4

             Softcover     978-1-5245-9283-7

             eBook          978-1-5245-9282-0

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Rev. date: 11/08/2016

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Contents

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Introduction

Part 1: Major Plant Families

Naming Plant Families

Part 2: Preparation of Herbal Medicines and Extraction Methods

2.1 Preparation of Herbal Medicines

Preparation of Herbal Medicines and Extraction Methods

Cultivation and Wild Harvesting

Cleaning

Drying

Natural drying

Artificial drying

Packaging of Dried Plants

Storage

Labelling

Herbal Preparations

Types of Preparations

Extraction Methods

Soxhlet Extraction

Supercritical Fluid Extraction

Steam Distillation

Fractional Distillation

Enfleurage

Cold Pressing

2.2 Analytical Methods for Evaluating the Quality and Purity of Phytochemicals

Principle of Chromatography

Partition Chromatography

Paper Chromatography

Adsorption Chromatography

Thin-layer Chromatography (TLC)

TLC Bioautography

Column Chromatography

Flash Chromatography

Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC)

High-performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

Gel Permeation Chromatography (Gel Filtration, Molecular Sieves)

Ion Exchange Chromatography

2.3 Structure Elucidation of Phytochemicals

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Mass Spectrometry

Infrared Spectrum

2.4 Evaluation of the Biological and Pharmacological Activity of Plant Extracts

Biological Screening for Pharmacological Activity

Preclinical Studies

Assays commonly used in the pharmacological evaluation of medicinal plants

Toxicity Studies

Clinical Studies

Part 3: Materia Medica

Materia Medica of the Cardiovascular System

Aesculus hippocastanum L. (Sapindaceae) Horsechestnut

Allium sativum (Liliaceae) Garlic

Antiaris toxicaria (Pers.) Lesch (Moraceae) Bark cloth tree, antiaris, false iroko

Capsicum frutescens (Solanaceae) Cayenne, red pepper

Crataegus oxycantha (Rosaceae) Hawthorn

Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgoceae) Maidenhair tree

Lippia multiflora Moldenke (Verbanaceae) Gambian bush tea

Psidium guajava Linn. (Myrtaceae) Guava; guayaba (see CVD)

Rauwolfia serpentina (Apocynaceae) Snakeroot

Rauwolfia vomitoria Azfel (Apocynaceae) Swizzlestick, African rauwolfia

Sarothamnus scoparius (L.) Koch. (Leguminosae/Papilionaceae) Broom

Strophanthus gratus (Wall. & Hook.) Baill. (Apocynaceae) Climbing Oleander

Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae) Cacao, cocoa

Zanthoxylum xanthoxyloides (Lam.) Waterm. (Rutaceae) Candle wood; Fagara

Zingiber officinale (Zingeberaceae) Ginger

Materia Medica of the Respiratory System

Althaea officinalis L. (Malvaceae) Marshmallow

Angelica archangelica L. (Apiaceae/Umbelliferae) Angelica

Borago officinalis L. (Boraginaceae) Borage

Clausena anisata (Willd) Hook (Rutaceae) Horsewood, maggot killer

Commiphora molmol Engl. (Bursuraceae) Myrrh

Desmodium adscendens (Sw.) DC. var adscendens (Fabaceae) Amor Seco, hitchhikers or beggar lice

Ephedra sinica (Ephedraceae) Ma’Huang

Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (Myrtaceae) Eucalyptus

Eupatorium perfoliatum L. (Asteraceae/Compositae) Boneset

Euphorbia hirta Linn. (Euphorbiaceae) Australia asthma herb

Inula helenium (Asteraceae) Elecampane

Sambucus nigra L. (Caprifoliaceae) Elder

Thonningia sanguinea Vahl (Balanophoraceae) Pineapple of the bush

Thymus vulgaris L. (Lamiaceae) Thyme

Materia Medica of Endocrine and Metabolic System

Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae) Australian Billy-goat weed

Aloe barbadensis (Asphodelaceae) Aloe vera

Bridelia ferruginea Benth (Euphorbiaceae) Bridelia

Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae) Gymnema, Gurmar

Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A. Rich. (Fabaceae) Natal indigo, Java indigo

Mangifera indica L. cv. Tommy Atkins (Anacardiaceae) Mango

Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae) Karela, bitter gourd

Ocimum sanctum (Lamiaceae) Tulsi, holy basil

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich) Hochst (Anacardiaceae) Marula

Syzygium cuminii L. (Myrtaceae) (Jamblon, Java plum)

Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae) Guduchi

Trigonella foenum-graecum (Leguminosae) Fenugreek

Materia Medica of Immunomodulatory/ Immunostimulating Herbs

Echinacea sp. (Asteraceae/Compositae) Coneflower

Astragalus membranaceus (Fabaceae) Membranous milk-vetch root (English), Huang qi (Chinese)

Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae) Andrographis

Materia Medica of Adaptogens

Eleutherococcus senticosus (Araliaceae) Siberian ginseng

Glycyrrhiza glabra (Fabaceae) Liquorice root

Panax ginseng (Araliaceae) Asian ginseng

Rhodiola rosea (Crassulaceae) Golden root, roseroot

Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. (Lamiaceae), Schisandra (English), Wu Wei Zi (Chinese)

Withania somnifera Duna (Solanaceae) Ashwagandha root, Indian ginseng, winter cherry

Materia Medica of the Nervous System

Avena sativa (Poaceae) Oats

Eschscholzia californica Cham. (Papaveraceae) California poppy

Humulus lupulus L. (Cannabaceae) Hops

Hypericum perforatum (Hypericaceae) St John’s wort

Melissa officinalis (Lamiaceae) Lemon balm

Passiflora incarnata (Passifloraceae) Passion flower, maypop

Piper methysticum (Piperaceae) Kava kava

Primula veris (Primulaceae) Cowslip

Scutellaria lateriflora L. (Labiatae) Scullcap

Solanum torvum Swartz (Solanaceae) Vitamin B complex fruit, prickly nightshade, pea aubergine

Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Schultz Bip. (Asteraceae) Feverfew

Valeriana officinalis (Valerianaceae) Valerian

Materia Medica of the Musculoskeletal System

Apium graveolens L. (Apiaceae/Umbelliferae) Celery

Cimicifuga racemosa Nutt. (Ranunculaceae) black cohosh, black snakeroot

Dioscorea villosa (Dioscoreacea) Wild Yam, rheumatism root

Filipendula ulmaria (L.) Maxim. (Rosaceae) Meadowsweet

Gaultheria procumbens (Ericaceae) Wintergreen

Guaiacum officinale L. (Zygophyllaceae) Guaiacum

Harpagophytum procumbens (Pedaliaceae) Devil’s claw

Phytolacca americana L. (Phytolaccaceae) Pokeroot

Plantago lanceolata (Plantaginaceae) Ribwort, plantain

Salix alba (Salicaceae) White willow bark

Smilax Species (Liliaceae) Sarsaparilla

Urtica dioica L. (Urticaceae) Stinging nettle

Zanthoxylum americanum (Rutaceae) Prickly ash, toothache tree

Materia Medica of the Gastrointestinal System

Achillea millefolium L. (Asteraceae/Compositae) Yarrow

Chamaemelum nobile (L.) (Asteraceae/Compositae) Roman Chamomile

Cinnamomum verum Nees (Lauraceae) Cinnamon

Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle (Rutaceae) Sour lime; West Indian lime

Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott and Endl. (Sterculiaceae) Kola nut

Fucus vesiculosus L. (Fucaceae) Bladderwrack, kelp

Gentiana lutea L. (Gentianaceae) Gentian

Hamamelis virginiana L. (Hamamelidaceae) Witch hazel

Hoodia gordonii (Masson) Sweet ex Decne (Apocynaceae) Bushman’s hat, Queen of the Namib

Hydrastis canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae) Golden seal

Matricaria recutita L. (Asteraceae/Compositae) German chamomile

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae) Horse radish tree; drumstick tree

Plantago ovata Forsk. (Plantaginaceae) Ispaghula, psillium

Rheum palmatum L. (Polygonaceae) Chinese rhubarb

Rosmarinus officinalis L. (Labiatae) Rosemary

Salvia officinalis L. (Labiatae/Lamiaceae) Sage

Symphytum officinale L. (Boraginaceae) Comfrey, boneset

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. and Perry (Myrtaceae) Clove

Taraxacum officinale Weber (Asteraceae/Compositae) Dandelion

Ulmus rubra Muhl (Ulmaceae) Slippery elm

Materia Medica of the Skin

Arctium lappa L. (Asteraceae/Compositae) Burdock

Calendula officinalis L. (Compositae) Calendula, marigold

Centella asiatica (L.) (Apiaceae/Umbelliferae) Centella, hydrocotyle

Kigelia africana Lam. Benth (Bignoniaceae) Sausage tree

Melaleuca alternifolia (Myrtaceae) Tea tree

Stellaria media (L.) Cyr (Caryophyllaceae) Chickweed

Materia Medica of the Genitourinary System

Agathosma betulina Bart and Wendl (Rutaceae) Buchu

Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv (Gramineae) Couchgrass

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (Ericaceae) Bearberry

Capsella bursa–pastoris (L.) Medic (Cruciferae) Shepherd’s purse

Caulophyllum thalictroides (L) Mich. (Berberidaceae) Blue cohosh

Chamaelirium luteum (L.) A. Gray (Liliaceae) False unicorn

Croton membranaceus Mull. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae)

Mimosa pudica L. (Mimosaceae) Sensitive plant, touch-me-not

Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. (Fabaceae) Velvet bean or cowitch

Pausinystalia yohimbe Pierre ex Beille (Rubiaceae) Yohimbe bark

Pygeum africanum; Prunus africana (Hook, f.) KalRm (Rosaceae) (African plum tree)

Rubus idaeus L. (Rosaceae) Raspberry

Serenoa serrulata Hook., F. (Arecaceae/Palmae) Saw palmetto

Tribulus terrestris L. (Zygophyllaceae) Puncturevine, cathead

Turnera diffusa Willd. var. aphrodisiaca Urb. (Bignoniaceae/Turneraceae) Damiana

Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait, Vaccinium oxycoccus (Ericaceae) Cranberry

Verbena officinalis L. (Verbenaceae) Vervain

Vitex agnus-castus L. (Verbenaceae) Agnus Castus, chasteberry

Zea mays L. (Gramineae) Corn silk

Monographs of Antimalarial Herbs

Alchornea cordifolia Schum and Thonn, Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) Christmas bush

Alstonia boonei De Willd (Apocynaceae) Pattern wood

Argemone mexicana L. (Papaveraceae) Mexican poppy, prickly poppy

Artemisia annua (Asteraceae) Qinghao; sweet wormwood

Azadirachta indica A. Juss (Meliaceae) Neem

Bidens pilosa L. var. minor (Blume) Sheriff (Asteraceae) Railway beggar’s tick

Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Lindl) Schlt (Periplocaceae/Asclepiadaceae) Ghana quinine

Ficus racemosa Linn (Moraceae) Cluster fig tree or goolar fig

Paullinia pinnata Linn (Sapindaceae) "Tua intini’; bread and cheese; guarana

Picralima nitida (Stapf) (Apocynaceae)

Quillaja saponaria (Rosaceae/Quillajaceae) (Soap bark tree)

Sarcocephalus latifolius/Nauclea latifolia (Rubiaceae) African peach

Sida acuta Burm. (Malvaceae) Teaweed

Strychnos myrtoides Gilg and Busse (Loganiaceae)

Monographs of Anti-hepatitis Herbs

Cynara scolymus (Asteraceae) Globe artichoke

Phyllanthus niruri (Euphorbiaceae) Stone breaker (‘Chanca piedra’), quinine weed

Silybum marianum (Asteraceae) Milk thistle

Brief Monographs of Anti-HIV/AIDS Herbs

Ancistrocladus korupensis (Ancistrocladaceae) Ancistrocladus

Calophyllum lanigerum var austrocoriaceum (Guttiferae, Hypericaceae) Bintangor tree

Homalanthus nutans (G.Forst.) Guill. (Euphorbiaceae) (Mamala)

Hypoxis hemerocallidea Fisch. and C.A. Mey (Hypoxidaceae) African potato

Sutherlandia frutescens (L.) R.Br subspecies Microphylla (Fabacea) Cancer bush

Monographs of Anti-infective African Medicinal Plants

Aframomum melegueta K. Schum (Zingiberaceae) Grains of paradise

Balanites aegyptiaca (Linn) Del. (Balanitaceae) Soap-berry tree, desert tree

Carica papaya Linn (Caricaceae) Pawpaw

Cassia alata Linn (Caesalpinaceae/Fabaceae) Ringworm shrub

Hoslundia opposita Vahl (Labiatae) Hoslundia

Piper guineense Schum and Thonn (Piperaceae) Ashanti pepper; West African black pepper

Scoparia dulcis Linn (Plantaginaceae) Broomweed

Securidaca longepedunculata Fres (Polygalaceae) Violet tree

Vernonia amygdalina del (Asteraceae) Bitter leaf

Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich. (Annonaceae) African guinea pepper

Plant-Derived Anticancer Agents

Brucea antidysenterica Mill (Simaroubaceae)

Camptotheca acuminata (Nyssaceae) Xi Shu, happy tree, cancer tree, or tree of life

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (Apocynaceae) Madagascar periwinkle, vinca rosea

Combretum caffrum (Eckl. and Zeyh.) Kuntze (Combretaceae) African bush willow

Podophyllum peltatum (Berberidaceae) May apple

Taxus brevifolia (Taxaceae) Pacific yew tree

Foreword

The two systems of traditional and Western Medicine do not clash. Within the context of primary health care they can blend together in a beneficial harmony, using the best features of each system and compensating for certain weaknesses in each… The time has never been better, and the reasons never greater, for giving traditional medicine its proper place in addressing the many ills that face our modern – and traditional societies

The quote above by Dr Margaret Chan, Director General of the World Health Organisation (WHO) exemplifies the need for all systems of medicine both modern and traditional to contribute to the health and wellbeing of the people. With the integration of traditional medicine into many health care systems throughout the world and the subsequent introduction of formal qualifications in the practice of herbal medicine the author has been able to draw on experience as a scientist and practitioner of herbal medicine to provide a book to support the needs of any student herbalist.

Volume 2 of Fundamentals of Herbal Medicine provides an excellent review of the science of taxonomy, the classic methods of herbal preparation and analytical methods to identify the phytochemical content and thus evaluate the quality of herbal products. With the continuing rise in interest of herbal products and exponential increase in published research there is a need for some consolidation of research methodologies to produce both credible and comparable results. This book provides the groundwork for such development. The overall value of this book is in its clarity, from the intricacies of taxonomy to the scientific presentation of analytical techniques. Descriptions are always clear, accurate and ‘student friendly’.

In addition to the basic academic content this book also contains a wide selection of monographs on the use of medicinal plants for the treatment of ailments seen at primary health care level. The monographs cover plants used in a range of traditions and are listed according to those used for treating ailments related to various systems of the body. A range of references to support the use of each plant featured are key to enabling students to relate research to practice.

The author’s passion for herbal medicine and the training of well informed, safe and competent herbal practitioners is exemplified in this textbook that will long be an inspiration to those involved in herbal practice worldwide

Barbara Pendry PhD

Programme leader for Herbal Medicine and member of The Medicines Research Group at the University of East London

Editor-in-chief of The Journal of Herbal Medicine.

Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to two former tutors of Birkbeck, University of London, Dr Howard Carless (my PhD supervisor) and Dr Barry Smith (mentor), for nurturing me with their patience, knowledge, and excellent teaching skills. It was Einstein who said, ‘I never teach my pupils; I only attempt to provide the conditions in which they can learn.’ In Howard and Barry, I found beauty in the pursuit and propagation of knowledge, humility, kindness, tolerance, friendship, guidance, discipline, and love!

In writing this book, I have been most greatly inspired by the friendship and mentorship of some amazing colleagues I was fortunate enough to meet at Middlesex University, UK: Andrew Chevallier, without doubt one of the finest medical herbalists and writers of our time; Dr Anne Stobbart; Peter Jarrett; and Dr Barbara Pendry. A prolific writer of international repute, Andrew granted me permission to use his precious lecture notes on herbal therapeutics and gave me the courage to make major changes to the content, organisation, and tone of the book. Quite remarkably, Peter, an expert gardener, generously and willingly offered me many of the plant photos in his library; whereas Anne, leveraging on her rich teaching experience, provided valuable insights that ultimately shaped the structure of this book. Barbara’s constant encouragement kept me going whenever there was stagnation. I am indeed honoured and grateful to consider Andrew, Peter, Anne, and Barbara not only as colleagues but more importantly as friends.

This book did not only benefit from the support of colleagues, but it was also directly inspired by the writings, teachings, and research of some unsung heroes and heroines: Simon Mills, Kerry Bone, David Hoffmann, Richard Adams, Adrian McDermott, Hananja Brice-Ystma, Michael McIntyre, Peter Conway-Grim, Dr Lily Holman, the late Dr Ellis Snitcher, Dr Celia Bell, Colin Nichols, Emeritus Prof Peter Houghton, Prof Joanne Barnes, Prof Michael Heinrich, Prof Elizabeth Williamson, Jim Clark, Dr Merlin Willcox, Dr Gerard Bodeker, and Prof Ameenah Gurib-Fakim, the current president of Mauritius. To these distinguished practitioners, teachers, and plant medicine research scientists, I owe a debt of gratitude that neither words nor material rewards can adequately pay. If you find this book interesting, informative, or educational, you would be advised to ‘go to the source’ and read their books and publications or experience their teaching as well.

Several people also contributed many hours of their time, attention, and valuable expertise towards improving this book. Some of them are friends or blood family from whom I solicited directly, but most are just good people whose only aim was to help! I would like to thank Prof Kofi Annan, Prof Charles Ansah, and Dr Isaac Kingsley Amponsah; all of the Faculty of Pharmacy of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) in Ghana; the medical herbalists Yaso Shan and Martin Logue; Dr Augustine Donkor of the University of Ghana; Charlesetta Ben of the University of Liberia; and Hadijatou Janneh and Akpene Dzikum of the West African Health Organisation.

Copyright permission was granted by Jim Clark of ChemGuide (Infrared, nuclear magnetic resonance, and mass spectroscopy); Peter Jarrett of Middlesex University (plant photos); Dr Deepak Bhanot (schematic diagram of gas chromatograph); Prof Kofi Annan (thin layer chromatography diagrams, chemical structures, and plant photos); Dr Cynthia Amaning Danquah (photos of analytical instruments); Waters (schematic diagram of a basic gel permeation chromatograph); Dr Jacquie Richardson of the University of Colorado at Boulder (fractional distillation setup); Dr Shula Levin (schematic diagram of a high performance liquid chromatography system); and my daughter Amma Busia (anatomical drawings).

Above all, I would like to thank my immediate family (the Busias), for supporting and encouraging me in spite of all the time it took me away from them. This journey, which began over a decade ago, could not have been completed without their understanding, spiritual and moral support, patience, and tolerance.

Introduction

The upsurge of interest in herbal medicine in the last three decades has been attributed in part, to the growing recognition of the therapeutic benefits of plants and the realisation that they can be sources of lead compounds for the development of some essential medicines.

Through ethnopharmacological and clinical studies, several medicinal plants have shown enormous promise for the treatment of a wide range of diseases. Notable among these are Aesculus hippocastanum (horse chestnut, for chronic venous insufficiency); Allium sativum (garlic, for hyperlipidemia); Combretum micranthum (African bush tea or kinkeliba, for fatigue, liver ailments, convalescence); Cryptolepis sanguinolenta (Ghana quinine, for malaria); Euphorbia hirta (Australian asthma herb, for asthma); Ginkgo biloba (for central nervous system and cardiovascular disorders); Hypericum perforatum (St. John’s wort, for depression); Lippia multiflora (Gambian bush tea, for mild hypertension, insomnia); Matricaria chamomilla (chamomile, for digestive and some inflammatory conditions); Moringa oleifera (moringa, for anaemia, malnutrition, high cholesterol); Panax ginseng (ginseng, as a tonic); Silybum marianum (milk thistle, for liver disorders), and Tanacetum parthenium (feverfew, for migraine headache). Others are Valeriana officinalis (valerian, for insomnia); Piper methysticum (kava kava, for anxiety); Senna alexandrina (senna) and Rhamnus purshiana (cascara sagrada)-used as laxatives; Echinacea purpura (Echinacea, used as an anti-inflammatory and immunostimulant); Serenoa repens (saw palmetto) and Croton membranaceus (croton)-for benign prostatic hyperplasia.

But as interest in herbal medicines has increased, so too have reports of suspected toxicity and adverse events. There is growing concern that although the therapeutic benefits of many medicinal plants cannot be disputed, their quality and safety remain contentious due to lack of credible scientific studies into their mode of action, contraindications, and potential adverse reactions and interactions with orthodox pharmaceuticals and functional foods. It is also widely believed that the herbal medicines industry is not sufficiently regulated in many countries, with a resultant proliferation of sub-standard herbal products and quacks of doubtful abilities and intentions.

As has been shown in Volume 1 of this book, the multiplicity of compounds present in medicinal plants, the different methods of preparation and the difficulty in standardising dosages, make them susceptible to some degree of toxicity. For example, like all potent medicines, cytotoxic, anti-cancer drugs such as the poly-oxygenated diterpene, taxol; the pyrrolizidine alkaloids present in herbs such as comfrey; and cardiac glycosides such as digitalis, can be beneficial but at the same time lethal depending on their dose, dosage form and the context in which they are used.

In addition, the safety and quality of herbal products can be compromised through accidental adulteration, misidentification, deliberate contamination with potentially hazardous substances, poor formulation, interactions with other medicines and lack of post-marketing quality assurance surveillance.

Of all these determinants of poor product quality, misidentification of herbs has been cited as the most common. Inaccurate identification of herbs can be hazardous. A reported case in 2006 involving a woman in the US, who was hospitalized with an irregular heart beat after taking what she thought was an herbal laxative illustrate this point. Subsequent investigation of the product found that it contained the cardiac glycoside, digitalis instead of plantain, as the supplier had been unable to identify the herb correctly.

WHO, the US Food and Drugs Authority and the European Medicines Agency therefore recommend the identification of herbal medicines as one of the first assays that should be conducted as a quality assurance and control measure. In order to support WHO Member States to establish quality standards and specifications for herbal materials within the overall context of quality assurance and control of herbal medicines, WHO published the Quality Control Methods for Medicinal Plant Materials in 1998, which was updated in 2007.

Authentication of herbs begins with assigning the correct name. Depending on the source and regulatory status, medicinal plants are usually named with their Latin scientific name, the common or vernacular name, the pharmaceutical name, or the specific herbal drug name, or the name used in official pharmacopoeia. The common or vernacular name is the least precise and plants from different genera or species may be given the same name. In Europe and the US, the common name is frequently the term of reference, although EU guidelines require the Latin scientific name on labels. For products made to pharmacopoeial standards, the identity of the species and plant part will be defined in the European Pharmacopoeia (PhEur). But in the case of crude plant material or unlicensed herbal medicines that are not PhEur compliant, the common name may be misleading or confusing. Currently, there is no single authoritative reference source that links the scientific name of medicinal plants with all their known synonyms. Latin scientific names are the only names that are standardised through the ‘International Code of Nomenclature of algae, fungi, and plants’ (ICN formerly ICBN). But there are a number of initiatives to address herbal identification and set quality standards. The Royal Botanic Gardens Kew’s Medicinal Plants Names Index (MPNI) project aims to develop an authoritative index of scientific plant names mapped to frequently-used vernacular, trade and pharmacopoeia names.

However, species authentication alone is still not sufficient for quality control of herbal medicines. New innovations in purification, isolation and structure elucidation, have made it possible to establish appropriate strategies for analysing and standardising herbal preparations. Among others, thin-layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), mass spectrometry (MS), infrared-spectroscopy (IR) and ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy (UV), can be effectively used for detailed qualitative and quantitative analyses of herbal medicines to minimize or prevent potential adverse effects, to assure quality, safety and efficacy.

Published herb monographs are another important tool for assuring and controlling the quality of herbal medicines. A reliable herbal monograph provides an organised set of information about an individual plant, giving such information as traditional uses, constituents, actions, and recommended tests for identification and quality. The WHO Monographs provide scientific information on the safety, efficacy, and quality control/assurance of widely used medicinal plants. The U.S. Pharmacopoeia establishes standards for nutritional supplements, botanical preparations, and excipients, as well as for drugs and medical devices. And the British Pharmacopoeia (BP), which is now published annually, sets a comprehensive collection of standards for UK medicinal substances. But besides individual country and regional pharmacopoeias, the European Pharmacopoeia has an extensive programme of herbal monographs, and the European Medicines Agency is also developing herbal monographs. In keeping with these trends, in Africa, Ghana and Nigeria are among the few countries that have developed national pharmacopoeias, and.an African Pharmacopoeia as well as a West African Herbal Pharmacopoeia have also been published.

It is against this background that Volume of 2 of the Fundamentals of Herbal Medicine has been written. Divided into three parts, it covers the main characteristics of some major plant families, the analytical techniques used in plant medicine research, and monographs of some common medicinal plants.

Part 1 begins with an outline of the system of naming plants, with particular focus on plant families and species, and lists some descriptive specific epithets and general rules used to ascertain the gender of a plant. This is followed by summaries of the distinguishing characteristics of some major plant families and their geographic origin, together with examples of important medicinal plants found in each family.

As has been described earlier, since a number of factors can affect the quality, safety and efficacy of herbal medicines even from the same species, there is the need for rapid, sensitive and precise assays to analyse their constituents, with a minimum of manipulation. Part 2 of Volume 2 therefore focuses on the common modes of preparation, cultivation, and wild harvesting of medicinal plants. This is then followed by outlines of the basic principles of soxhlet extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, steam distillation, fractional distillation, enfleurage, and cold pressing. Also included in this section is the common chromatographic methods used in herbal medicine research such as adsorption chromatography, thin-layer chromatography, thin-layer chromatography bioautography, column chromatography, flash chromatography, gas liquid chromatography, partition chromatography, paper chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, gel permeation chromatography, and ion exchange chromatography. Part 2 also provides an overview of different methods for evaluating the quality, purity, and biological and pharmacological activities of plant extracts. These include methods for biological screening for pharmacological activity, preclinical studies, assays commonly used in the pharmacological evaluation of medicinal plants, as well as toxicity and clinical studies. The section ends with an outline of the basic principles of some spectroscopic methods used to elucidate the structure of phytochemicals, such as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy, and infrared spectroscopy.

A detailed botanical description of a particular plant, can be a useful tool for quality assurance. Part 3 of volume 2, therefore provides 153 monographs of medicinal plants found in Europe and other parts of the world, including 63 previously unpublished monographs on African medicinal plants. The novelty here is the inclusion of monographs of several African medicinal plants, in addition to the usual monographs on plants from Asia, Europe, and the US. This is intended to set African materia medica and that of the Western world in context for comparison and evaluation. All these monographs are presented with information that are of particular relevance to the practitioner, producer, patient and the researcher. These include parts used, chemical constituents, dosages, actions and indications, and safety/toxicity. Although, geographical distribution is usually not found in official compendia, it is included here to provide additional quality assurance information.The monographs also contain a substantial volume of information on herbs that will be of interest to the general reader seeking knowledge of the rational use of herbal medicines or patients who increasingly use medicinal plants for their health care needs but are ignorant of the potential dangers associated with some of them. However, since most of the studies on plants are carried out on extracts in vitro or in vivo rather than by the gold-standard placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trials, this information cannot be taken wholly as a positive affirmation of clinical effect, although evidence for the efficacy of some of these time-tested remedies cannot be disputed. In presenting the monographs, the approach used is to place a monograph first under the system for which the herb is commonly used, and reference made to it when any other condition or system for which it is reputedly indicated is subsequently discussed.

Importantly a comprehensive list of references is provided to guide readers to locate all the sources (books, journal articles, websites, etc.) that were used in writing this book.

As a result of the increasing concern about the quality, safety and efficacy of herbal products by policy-makers, health professionals as well as the general public, it has become imperative to foster confidence by providing adequate information to facilitate better understanding of the associated risks and benefits. Volume 2 of the Fundamentals of Herbal Medicine serves this purpose, especially when used together with Volume 1 as both are inextricably linked.

Part 1

Major Plant Families

Naming plant families

Naming plant species

Examples of major plant families and their distinguishing characteristics

Naming Plant Families

Plants are typically grouped into ‘families’ based on the similarities in their botanical features. Plants within a group are more closely related to other members of their own group than to members of another group. A plant family is defined by a set of distinct features, mainly of the reproductive structures (flowers and fruits), which distinguish it from other families (Smith, 1963), although roots, stems, buds, and leaves can also be used. Many members of a plant family share common characteristics in appearance, seed location and shape, and growth habit. However, some families have a lot of diversity in appearance. Members of a plant family that have more characteristics in common with each other than they do with other groups within the same family are grouped into one genera (plural of genus).

The Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist Carolus Linnaeus, who is considered the Father of Taxonomy, developed a way of naming and organising species that is still used today. In his Systema Naturae, Linnaeus classified nature into a hierarchy, suggesting that the whole of nature could fit into three broad groups called kingdoms. These kingdoms were animals, plants, and minerals. Each of these kingdoms was divided into classes. Classes were divided into orders, which were further divided into genera and then species.

A genus is an aggregate of species that are closely related to each other. A genus may contain a single species (e.g., Ginkgo) or more than 100 (e.g., Rosa).

It is difficult to define a species. They are sometimes defined as a group of individual organisms (plants) that are fundamentally alike. Species is abbreviated sp. (singular) or spp. (plural).

In modern botanical classification, each family is named after one of its plants, which has some unique features that distinguish the family (group of plants) from others. A family may contain only one genus (e.g., Ginkgoaceae) or only a few genera (e.g., Berberidaceae, Plantaginaceae), but others such as Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, Rosaceae, and Umbelliferae have many genera (Stearn and Stearn, 1992).

According to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, scientific names of most plant families consist of the name of one of the genera and the Latin suffix ‘-aceae’, which means ‘family, belonging to, or having the nature of’ (Stearn and Stearn, 1992). For example, ‘Rosaceae’ means ‘the Rose family’ and ‘Asteraceae’ means ‘the Daisy family’. However, there are a few exceptions with descriptive names, which were the first to be recognised and have been allowed to retain their time-honoured designations. These include the Cruciferae (‘cross-bearers’), Gramineae (‘grasses’), and Umbelliferae (‘umbel-bearers’) (Stearn and Stearn, 1992).

A scientific family name is used without adding the word ‘family’. Thus, whereas it will be correct to say ‘marigold is in Asteraceae’, it will be incorrect to say ‘marigold is in the Asteraceae family’.

Common names of plant families have no international standardization, and thus vary from person to person or even country to country. For example, whereas some people may choose to call the Asteraceae the ‘Sunflower family’, others may refer to it as ‘Aster family’ or ‘Daisy family’. Common names are therefore made up by anyone for any reason and are not recorded or attached to a preserved plant specimen. Common names do not necessarily show relationships among plants; in fact, most plants have no common name.

The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature also accepts eight alternate scientific family names that do not end in ‘-aceae’. These are the Apiaceae/Umbelliferae, Arecaceae/Palmae, Asteraceae/Compositae, Brassicaceae/Cruciferae, Clusiaceae/Guttiferae, Fabaceae/Leguminosae, Lamiaceae/Labiatae, and Poaceae/Gramineae.

Some authorities have moved a number of genera to new families, and some of these families are not accepted by mainstream botany. For example, in some texts, Alliums (onions) has been moved from the Liliaceae (Lily family) and placed in the Alliaceae, but most other botanists still include Alliums in Liliaceae and do not accept the legitimacy of Alliaceae (http://www.swcoloradowildflowers.com/plant%20names.htm).

Binomial Nomenclature

The scientific name of a plant places it in a group of similar plants with the same name and this shows relationship. It describes a characteristic of the plant (hairy, short, twin seeds), shows a relationship to other plants (similar to a plant from another country, similar to another genus), or honours a place. A scientific name may also be derived from history such as a traditional use or the name of a country where the plant was first recorded. To be accepted, a scientific name must be attached to a preserved plant specimen and placed in a herbarium. The name must also be published in a book, botanical journal, newspaper, magazine, or accepted website with detailed information on the original collector of the plant specimen, the person who named the plant, when the plant was collected and name, and the plant’s key characteristics.

Carolus Linnaeus laid the foundations for the system of naming plants, usually called binomial nomenclature, in his Species Plantarum (1753) (Stearn and Stearn, 1992). In this system, the scientific name for a plant is always two words; the first word refers to the ‘genus’ to which the plant belongs, while the second, variously called the ‘specific epithet’ (formerly called a trivial name) or ‘species epithet’, distinguishes this plant from all others in the same genus. The scientific name almost always appears as only the genus and specific epithet. For example, in the name Allium sativum, ‘Allium’ is the genus and ‘sativum’ is the specific epithet. Allium sativum is the specific name or the name of the species. This means that although there are many other Alliums, only one Allium sativum exists and no other plant in the world has the name ‘Allium sativum’; all ‘Alliums’ belong to the Lily family, scientifically called Liliaceae. The generic name may be used on its own as the name of a genus, but the specific name is meaningless if used on its own. When referring to a plant in a genus when the actual specific name cannot or need not be specified, the generic name followed by the abbreviation ‘sp.’ is used, but when referring collectively to some or all of the species in a genus, the generic name followed by the abbreviation ‘spp.’ is rather used. For example, Mentha sp. means ‘an unspecified species of the genus Mentha’, while ‘Mentha spp.’ means ‘several species of the genus Mentha’.

Specific epithets often describe the species in some way. As shown by the examples provided in Table 1 below, specific epithets may be derived from a description of some part of the plant such as the flower or leaf, the area where the plant was discovered, or its habitat. When writing botanical names, both the genus and the specific epithet are usually written in italics within a sentence or underlined to distinguish them from other words. The first letter of the genus is always capitalized, while the specific epithet is lowercased, e.g., Allium sativum. However, the abbreviations ‘spp.’ or ‘sp.’ are not italicized, for example, Mentha spp. or sp. Some plant species, typically within a single genus, when grown together are found to interbreed to form hybrids. These plants are given a hybrid name, which is indicated with an ‘x’ such as Digitalis lutea x D. Purpurea or Mentha x piperita (a cross between water mint and spearmint). After the whole name has been written once, the initial of the genus could be used in text, for example, A. sativum for garlic. For precision or for the avoidance of any confusion, the name of the author of a plant is often indicated, e.g., Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer. This means that the plant was named and described by C.A. Meyer. In some cases, the person named after the plant may not necessarily be the person who discovered the plant. An example is the full scientific name for the African plant Natal indigo. This is written as Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A. Rich., which means it was named by Hochstetter, who sent the specimen and name to Richard Achille, who published the description. It is also common for a plant or the genus to be named in honour of a person. For example, the genus Rauwolfia was named to honour the eighteenth-century German physician and botanist Leonhard Rauwolf (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Rauwolf).

Table 1: Examples of some descriptive specific epithets

Usually, the person who first names a plant always has their name attached to the plant even if the name is subsequently changed. An example is Calypso bulbosa (L.) Oakes, which means that Linnaeus first named this plant, but the name he gave was changed by Oakes to reflect more accurate classification. However, if someone else were to come along and change Oakes’s plant name, Oakes’s name would be dropped, e.g., Calypso linearis (L.) Smith. Also, sometimes new research can show that a plant was originally incorrectly classified, and the plant may be given a new name, reclassified in a different genus, or even put into a different family. The previously accepted names then becomes ‘synonyms’. Botanical synonyms are not interchangeable; only one name is accepted and synonyms should not be used as a substitute for the currently accepted name. If a researcher believes that they have found evidence that plants should be regrouped and renamed, the evidence will be published and it is gradually accepted or rejected by peers.

Most botanical generic names are of Latin form and end in a, -um, or -us, but only a small number are genuine Latin names used by the Romans. Ancient Greek and Latin names have survived into modern botany mainly through the works of Theophrastus (Peri phyton historia), Dioscorides (Peri hyles iatrikes), and Pliny (Naturalis historia) (Stearn and Stearn, 1992). In fact, botanical generic names such as Achillea, Acorus, Anemone, Bupleurum, and Petroselinum are of Greek origin, whereas modern names such as Adansonia, Albizia (after Albizzi), Cammelia, Carnegiea, Fuchsia, Linnaea, Sequoia, and Yoania, etc., are personal names. Others such as Arisanorchis, Bogoria, Caribea, Domingoa, Jacaima, Librevillea, Lobivia, etc., are of geographic origin (Stearn and Stearn, 1992). But today, the scientific names of plants are treated as Latin irrespective of their origin and the Latin grammatical rules of agreement in gender are used when applicable (Stearn and Stearn, 1992). According to the rules, the name of a genus is either a noun or a word treated as such and, for that reason, has masculine, feminine, or neuter gender. The following are some general rules used to ascertain the gender of a plant (Stearn and Stearn, 1992):

Plants with generic names ending in ‘-us’ such as Hibiscus, Humulus, Narcissus have masculine gender except for trees, such as Alnus, Cedrus, Fagus, Laurus, Pinus, etc., which are feminine. Plants with generic names ending in the Greek ‘-ōn’, such as Dendromecon and Platystemon, are masculine, but those ending in the Greek ‘-ŏn’ (which can also be rendered as ‘-um’) are neuter, e.g., Clerodendrum, Rhododendrŏn.

Most plant generic names ending in ‘-a’, for example, Castanea, Fuchsia, Rosa are feminine, unless they are derived from neuter Greek words ending in ‘-ma’ such as derma (skin), phragma (partition), sperma (seed), sterna (stamen), stigma (stigma). Thus, Aglaeonema, Ceratostigma, Duasperma Pachyphragma, Tricbostema are neuter. Generic names ending in ‘-ago’, ‘-ix’, ‘-odes’, ‘-oides’ are also feminine, for example, Nympboides, Plumbago, Solidago, Salix, etc. Other feminine generic names are those ending in ‘-is’ or ‘-es’, which include Cannabis, Clematis, Orchis, Oxalis, Vitis, Cheilanthes, Menyanthes.

Plants with generic names ending in ‘-dendron’ and ‘-um’, for example, Allium, Halimodendron, Lilium, Spartium, Trillium, are neuter.

Applying the accepted rules of nomenclature can help prevent the arbitrary changes to established botanical names that often occur.

Specific epithets may be either adjectives and participles or nouns (Table 2). The adjectives usually agree in gender with the corresponding generic names. For example, the gender of Philadelphus is masculine and so are all the epithets of Philadelphus species, including coronarius, grandiflorus, mcanus, mexicanus, and microphyllus. In the same way, the gender of Rosa is feminine and so are all the associated epithets alba, floribunda, japonica, rosea, etc. Lilium is of neuter gender and the associated epithets auratum, canadense, candidum, pumilum, sulpbureum, etc., are equally neuter (Stearn and Stearn, 1992).

Table 2. The three main groups of the adjectives and participles of specific epithets

Nouns used as specific epithets are not affected by the gender of the generic name. They remain the same whatever the gender. Such nouns may be obsolete names as in Teucrium chamaedrys; or current generic names as in Rosa rubus, Rubus rosa; or vernacular names as in Codonopsis tangshen, Prunus mume, Sabal palmetto, etc. The use of the terms male (mas, masculus) and female (femineus) as the specific epithets for plants such as Cornus mas, Paeonia mascula, and Anagallis femina, which are all known to have hermaphrodite flowers, is purely symbolic and has no real sexual implication (Stearn and Stearn, 1992).

In fact, plant authorities do not always agree on the name to be given to a plant; one authority’s name for a plant may be another authority’s synonym. Changes in established botanical names occur mainly due to changes in classification, such as a species being found to belong to a different genus, or a taxon needing to be split. This was the case of the Madagascar periwinkle, which had long been known as Vinca rosea although it differs in many ways (e.g., chemical constituents) from the true periwinkles (Vinca). The plant is now placed in the genus Catharanthus and its correct name is now Catharanthus roseus. Other changes are the result of the application of the principle of priority, rejection of later homonyms, and correction of past mis-identifications or mis-applications of names (Stearn and Stearn, 1992). What this means is that the same plant may have several scientific names at the same time while waiting for unanimity on one name.

Despite these arbitrary changes, which can be a source of irritation, knowing which family a plant belongs to can provide vital information for its proper usage.

Distinguishing characteristics of some major plant families and their geographic origin

The following section outlines some of the distinguishing features of 51 plant families used worldwide for the treatment of disease, some of which have served as sources of some very useful drugs. Examples of plants belonging to each family together with their common names and geographic origin are provided in tables.

Anacardiaceae (Cashew Family)

These are trees, shrubs, lianas, or perennial herbs with resin ducts and laticifers. The leaves are often pinnately compound; flowers 5-merous, small, with nectary disc; stamens 5 or 10; one ovule per carpel; 1–5 carpels in a fruit; fruit a drupe.

Table 3. Examples of plants of the Anacardiaceae

Annonaceae (Custard Apple Family)

Mostly tropical, some mid-latitude, deciduous or evergreen trees and shrubs, some lianas, with aromatic bark, leaves, and flowers; bark is fibrous and aromatic. The leaves are alternate, two-ranked, simple, pinnately veined, and have leaf stalks; stipules absent. The flowers are usually trimerous; borne singly or in compound inflorescences; bisexual and rarely unisexual; usually two to four persistent sepals that are distinct or connate (fused) at the base; six petals in two unequal whorls of three with larger outer whorls and fleshier inner whorls that might share the same nectar glands; stamens inserted below the ovary, spirally arranged and forming a ball or flat-topped mass with short and stout filaments and linear to oblong anthers that face outward and open longitudinally. The fruits are distinct (berries) or coalesce (into syncarps).

Table 4. Examples of plants of the Annonaceae

Apiaceae (Parsley Family)

Formerly Umbelliferae; mostly herbaceous aromatic, some very poisonous (oils, resins); stems are often hollow. The leaves are alternate, pinnately or palmately compound to simple, often deeply dissected or lobed, entire to serrate, with pinnate to palmate venation; leaf petiole broadened with sheath surrounding stem or base of leaf; hairs various, sometimes with prickles. The flowers are small actinomorphic; usually bisexual but sometimes unisexual; inflorescence is an umbel; sometimes condensed into a head, often subtended by an involucre of bracts, terminal; petals 5, not fused, sepals reduced or absent. The fruit is dry, dividing into two parts (schizocarp). This family now includes the Araliaceae.

Table 5. Examples of plants of the Apiaceae

Apocynaceae (Milkweed and Dogbane Family)

Now includes the Asclepiadaceae; noted for its alkaloidal content. The leaves are opposite, simple, pinnate venation; margin smooth, stipules absent; latex (milky sap) in all branches and leaves. Sepals 5, petals 5, sometimes fused; ovary superior; fruit usually with 2 separate carpels, developing into 1–2 dry capsular parts or berries; seeds often with tufts of hairs at one end.

Table 6. Examples of plants of the Apocynaceae

Arecaceae (Palm Family)

Comprises of about 2,700 species; almost exclusively woody; trees or shrubs, sometimes lianas or herbs; stem usually unbranched, without secondary growth; leaves large, pinnately or palmately divided; inflorescence axillary, large; flowers sessile; tepals 6; fruit a fleshy drupe with one seed.

Table 7. Examples of plants of the Arecaceae

Asteraceae (Daisy/Aster Family)

Formerly Compositae; comprises of some 25,000 species and 1,400 genera; largest family of flowering plants, yet with relatively small important economic products. Mostly herbaceous, a few shrubs; leaves bitter-tasting; variable, with pinnate venation; basal rosette; small reduced flowers (florets) arranged in a composite head that is diagnostic for the family; composite heads may be solitary or arranged in corymbs, cymes, panicles, or racemes on the plant; sepals absent; petals fused, usually with 5 small lobes; ovary inferior; stamens 5; disk florets are tubular and actinomorphic; ray florets are zygomorphic, consisting of a short tube and one long ray or ligule, and often lack stamens; sepals on both floret types are reduced to pappus, bristles, or lacking entirely; fruit is an achene, often with hairs on top (pappus); store carbohydrate in the form of inulin.

Table 8. Examples of plants of the Asteraceae

Balanitaceae (Torchwood Family)

Trees or shrubs, with simple or forked spines or leaves; leaves alternate, compound, pinnately compound; margin entire; stipules absent; inflorescence solitary, raceme, fascicle, compound, sympodial or monopodial; flowers bisexual, actinomorphic, receptacle enlarged, completely united with the ovary, totally or partially covering it; sepals 5; petals 5; stamen 10; ovary superior, 5-locular; fruit a 1-seeded drupe. Example: Balanites aegyptiaca (soap berry tree).

Berberidaceae (Barberry Family)

Herbs and shrubs, perennial; flowers perfect, regular, hypogynous; 3 sepals, 3 petals; fruit is a berry or capsule. Mahonia (now often merged with Berberis).

Table 9. Examples of plants of the Berberidaceae

Betulaceae (Birch Family)

Trees or shrubs; leaves simple, serrated, stipulate, alternately arranged and often oval or ovate in shape; flowers reduced, unisexual, arranged in pistillate and staminate catkins which are found on the same plant (all species are monoecious), and often clustered together; individual flowers may consist of a few small tepals or bracteoles, or a single subtending bract or scale, and either 2 fused inferior carpels or 1–4 stamens; petals absent; styles 2 or 3; fruit a nut or 2-winged samara, surrounded by leafy bracts.

Table 10. Examples of plants of the Betulaceae

Boraginaceae (Borage Family)

Herbs with stiff hairs; leaves alternate, simple; stem hairs are generally bristly and erect; inflorescence a coiled cyme, resembling a scorpion; flowers often white or yellow, sympetalous, actinomorphic, 5-merous; anthers attached to corolla, corolla tube often with infoldings or scales (corona); ovary superior; fruit a schizocarp splitting into 4 nutlets; noted for its pyrrolizidine alkaloid content.

Table 11. Examples of plants of the Boraginaceae

Brassicaceae (Cabbage/Mustard Family)

Formerly Cruciferae; herbaceous; leaves simple, alternate, often lobed deeply or dentate, with pinnate venation; has a sharp madish-like taste; flowers are actinomorphic and without subtending bracts (ebracteate), inflorescence a raceme; perianth of 4 sepals and 4 petals in a cruciform (cross-like) arrangement; white, yellow, or pin; tetradynamous (4 long and 2 short); fruit a dry capsule with inner wall; entomophilous. Notable economic genera are presented in the table below.

Table 12. Examples of plants of the Brassicaceae

Campanulaceae (Bluebell/Bellflower/Lobelia Family)

Mostly herbs, rarely shrubs or trees. The plants store carbohydrates as inulin; laticifers present with milky sap; polyacetylenes present, but iridoids absent. Hairs usually simple, unicellular; leaves alternate, simple (rarely compound) without stipules, sometimes lobed, entire to serrate, with pinnate venation; stipules absent. Inflorescences various with latex; petals fused; 5 corollas either bell-shaped or two-lipped or tubular; ovary inferior, with 2–5 carpels; fruit a berry or capsule. The flowers are usually bisexual, radial to bilateral, with hypanthium; stamens usually 5; filaments distinct to distally connate, usually attached to disk at apex of ovary; ovary usually inferior (or half-inferior), with usually axile placentation. This family includes the family Lobeliaceae.

Table 13. Examples of plants of the Campanulaceae

Cannabinaceae/Cannabidaceae (Hemp Family)

Trees, erect or twining herbs; leaves palmately lobed or palmately compound with stipules; often dioecious; flowers actinomorphic; calyx short and there is no corolla; flowers grouped to form cymes; masculine inflorescences are long and look like panicles in dioecious plants, while the feminine are shorter and bear less flowers; ovary superior andunilocular; no fixed number of stamens; fruit can be an achene, drupe or a small nut. Cannabaceae are very similar to Moraceae.

Table 14. Examples of plants of the Cannabinaceae

Caprifoliaceae (Honeysuckle Family)

These are herbs, shrubs, small trees, or lianas; often having phenolic glycosides, iridoids, and scattered secretory cells; leaves opposite, simple, sometimes pinnately divided or compound; entire to serrate, with pinnate venation; stipules lacking. Inflorescences various; flowers bisexual and bilateral; sepals usually 5, connate; petals usually 5, connate, often with 2 upper lobes and 3 lower lobes, or a single upper lobe and 4 lower ones; stamens (1–) 4 or 5; carpels usually 2–5, connate; ovary inferior, often elongate, with axile placentation, nectar produced by closely packed glandular hairs on lower part of corolla tube. Fruit a capsule, berry, drupe, or achene; endosperm present or lacking.

Table 15. Examples of plants of the Caprifoliaceae

Caricaceae (Pawpaw Family)

Small, soft-stemmed, palmlike trees, or shrubs; laticiferous; leaves large; alternate; petiolate; simple, or compound; commonly palmate; lamina when simple, entire or dissected (rarely); cross-venulate; stipules when present, spiny; flowers solitary, or aggregated in ‘inflorescences’; flowers regular; 5-merous; cyclic; fruit fleshy; indehiscent; a berry (large, melon-like); seeds endospermic; typified by Carica papaya (Pawpaw).

Caryophyllaceae (Carnation and Pink Family)

Usually herbaceous; stems sometimes with concentric rings of xylem and phloem; anthocyanins present; often with triterpenoid saponins. Hairs various leaves opposite, simple, with pinnate venation; leaf edge smooth; stems often with thickened nodes at base of each leaf pair. Inflorescences determinate sometimes reduced to a single flower, terminal. Flowers usually bisexual, radial, sometimes with an androgynophore; sepals 5, fused; petals 5, not fused; ovary superior, with free-central or occasionally basal placentation; stigmas minute to linear; fruit a dry capsule opening at top; seeds attached to central column inside capsule; seeds many, black, often strongly curved.

Table 16. Examples of plants of the Caryophyllaceae

Cucurbitaceae (Cucumber Family)

Vines; one tendril per node; leaves simple, alternate, palmately veined, often lobed, no stipules; inflorescence axillary, solitary flowers common; flowers unisexual; petals fused or absent, 5; anthers 5; ovary inferior, 3 carpels, parietal placentation; fruit a berry or pepo (or capsule or samara).

Table 17. Examples of plants of the Cucurbitaceae

Equisetaceae (Horsetail Family)

Herbs; stems ridged, hollow, circular with nodes and sheaths; leaves sometimes absent, thin, and hollow; sporangia in terminal heads; spores small, with arms. The most well-known example is Equisetum arvense (Horsetail).

Ericaceae (Blueberry family) (Heath family)

Shrubs or small trees, sometimes herbs; leaves simple, without stipules; often leathery and evergreen; inflorescences various, flowers usually bisexual, rarely unisexual, radial to slightly bilateral, often hanging; petals 5 (rarely 0–7), fused; stamens in two whorls, attached to petals; anthers inverted, often with pores as openings with nectar disc inside stamens; ovary superior or inferior, usually with 5 carpels; fruit a capsule, berry, or drupe. Included in the Ericaceae are the Empetraceae, Monotropaceae, and Pyrolaceae.

Table 18. Examples of plants of the Ericaceae

Euphorbiaceae (Spurge Family)

Herbs, shrubs, trees, or vines with latex, often white; stems often succulent and fleshy; leaves simple, two stipules often present (sometimes as two spines below each leaf); inflorescence cyme or cyathium; flowers unisexual, 5-merous; sometimes highly reduced without sepals and petals; nectarines common; ovary superior, 3 carpels; fruit a schizocarp, capsule, or drupe.

Table 19. Examples of plants of the Euphorbiaceae

Fabaceae (Pea Family)

Some authorities recognise three subdivisions: Family Fabaceae (formerly Papilionaceae); Family Mimosaceae; Family Caesalpinaceae; others regard these as a single family, Family Leguminosae. It is the second largest family of flowering plants; mostly herbaceous, some trees and shrubs; leaves alternate, compound, sometimes with tendrils; stipules at base of each leaf; corolla of ‘butterfly-type’, bilateral with 5 parts: banner/standard, wings, keel, keel hidden between wings; stamens and style hidden inside keel; fruit a bean (legume), a dry capsule without inner dividing walls, and with seeds attached to one side; roots have tubercles or nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria; the