Origin of the Universe and Life on Earth

By Ahmed A. El-Dash

THE SCIENTIFIC ANSWER TO:

HOW THE UNIVERSE WAS CREATED, HOW IT WILL END? WHAT IS ANTIMATTER, DARK MATTER AND UNIVERSAL ENERGY? DID GOD MADE IT?

THE MIRACLE OF GENETIC LIVING MATERIALS, WHO MADE IT? EXTRATERRESTRIAL LIFE EXIST? WHAT IS THE REASON FOR THE EXISTANCE OF THE HUMAN RACE? WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF MANKIND AND HIS RELIGIONS? IS THERE A LIFE AFTER DEATH? IS THERE HAVEN AND HELL? UNIVERSAL COSMIC RELIGION IS ON THE WAY?

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Aug 20, 2012
• ISBN: 9781503538863

Ahmed A. El-Dash

B.Sc. in Agriculture Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt -1961 M.Sc. in Food Technology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA-1966 Ph.D. in Food Chemistry, Kansas State Ulliversity, Manhattan, Kansas, USA-1969 Post-Doctorate, in chemical reactions, National Academy of Sciences, USA-1970 Livre Docencia in food Chem. & Tech., State University of Campinas, BRAZIL-1978 Worked as research scientist and a member of university staff for 50 years in Egypt, United States of America and Brazil, with over 30 years as full professor. Has more than 100 scientific and research articles, books and patents published. Author of new theory on the molecular and chemical structure of Gluten protein. Has worked as a consultant for Inter- American Banc for Development and United Nation Agent for Industrial Development. Has lived for years in the three major human cultures in the Middle East and America. Speaks English, Portuguese and Arabic with firm understanding of the three major religions, Islam, Christianity and Judaism and read the Quran, Bible and Torah. Married to Eliana Cusin and has 6 children living in Brazil, United States Ireland and Australia.

Book preview

THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE AND LIFE ON EARTH

Prof. Dr. Ahmed A. EL-Dash

THE SCIENTIFIC ANSWER TO:

HOW THE UNIVERSE WAS CREATED, HOW IT WILL END?

WHAT IS ANTIMATTER, DARK MATTER AND UNIVERSAL ENERGY?

DID GOD MADE IT?

THE MIRACLE OF GENETIC LIVING MATERIALS, WHO MADE IT? EXTRATERRESTRIAL LIFE EXIST? WHAT IS THE REASON FOR THE EXISTANCE OF THE HUMAN RACE? WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF MANKIND AND HIS RELIGIONS? IS THERE A LIFE AFTER DEATH? IS THERE HAVEN AND HELL? UNIVERSAL COSMIC RELIGION IS ON THE WAY?

CAMPINAS, SP, BRAZIL

2012

Copyright © 2012 by Ahmed A. El-Dash. 115989-ELDA

Library of Congress Control Number: 2012909717

ISBN: Softcover      978-1-4771-2111-5

ISBN: Hardcover     978-1-4771-2112-2

ISBN: Ebook            978-1-5035-3886-3

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Xlibris

1-888-795-4274

www.Xlibris.com

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE BASIC PARTICLES

CHAPTER II

ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE INORGANIC MATTER

CHAPTER III

GOD AND CREATION OF THE UNIVERSE

CHAPTER IV

ORIGIN OF LIFE

CHAPTER V

LIVING MATTER

CHAPTER VI

UNIVERSE ENERGY AND ORGANIC MATTER

CHAPTER VII

THE MIRACLE Of F LIFE

CHAPTER VIII

LIFE, GOD, RELIGION: PRESENT AND FUTURE

CHAPTER I

ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE BASIC PARTICLES

I—The Beginning Of Space And Time.

A. Steady-State Theory.

B. Big Bang Theory

C. Support Of The Big Bang Theory.

II—The Universe Particles And Matter

A. Elements Particles:

B. Subatomic Particles.

C. Dark (unseen) Matter and Energy.

D. Antimatter

III—Big Bang Theory in Debate.

A. The Age.

B. Homogeneous Universe.

C. Density

D. Universe Expansion

E. Singularities.

F. Spinning Universe and speed of light.

G. The Universe microwave background.

IV—New Model for Creation of Matter and Universe

A. Requirement for new theory

B. Basis of the New Model

C. Fundamentals of the new model

1. The existence of positive and negative pure energy universes.

2. The third universe.

3. Formation of matter and antimatter.

4. Collision of matter and antimatter.

5. Transformation of matter and energy

D. Evidence supporting the new model

1. Expanding universe

2. Universe expanding speed.

3. Dark Energy

E. The universe as seen in the present model

1. The electromagnetic waves vs. particles.

2. Dark energy continuum network

3. Deformation of space and time.

V—The Fate Of Our Visible Universe.

VI—The Origin Of The Pure Positive And Negative Energy Universes.

A. Disintegration and recycling of Matter and energy.

B. Mechanism of Creation of positive and negative basetrons.

CHAPTER II

ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE INORGANIC MATTER

I—Inorganic Matter (Heavy Elements).

II—Creation Of Inorganic Elements.

III—Creation (Birth) Of Stars.

A. Condensation Of Hydrogen Clouds

B. Star Mass And Life Cycle.

C. The Massive System Of Stars (Galaxies).

D. The Life Cycle (Main Sequence) Of Star.

IV—The Universe Dark Matter And Energy

V—Transformation Of Hydrogen In Helium.

VI—Transformation Of Helium In Carbon, Oxygen, Neon, Magnesium, Silicon, Sulfur And Iron.

VII—Creation Of Elements Heavier Than Iron.

VIII—Creation Of All Other Inorganic Elements.

IX—Creation Of The Solar System.

X—Our Planetary And Solar System.

CHAPTER III

GOD AND CREATION OF THE UNIVERSE

I—Creation of Universe In Religion and Evolution

A. Order of Universe Creation in Christian and Jewish Biblical Records (book of Genesis 1-2)

B. Universe Creation in Christian, Jewish Biblical Records VS. Evolution.

C. Creation in Islam (Qur’an) View VS. Evolution.

II—Universe Creation According to the Proposed New Theory.

FIRST: Condensation of the Universe Basic Particles (Basetrones)

SECOND: Creation of Energy, Light, and Heat

THIRD: Transformation of Stars to Form Inorganic Matter

III—Did God Create The Universe?

A. Type of reactions involved in the universe creation

B. Creation of Energy, Light, and Heat of the Universe.

IV—Conclusion Of The Creation Of Universe

CHAPTER IV

ORIGIN OF LIFE

I—What Is Life?

II—Origin Of Water

III—Origin Of Organic Monomers Molecules

A. Natural Organic Synthesis

B. Extraterrestrial Origins O Organic Molecules

IV—Origin Of Organic Polymer Molecules.

V—Evolution Of Organic Molecules To Form A Living Cell

A. Spontaneous Generation

B. Coacervate (Oparin-Haldane) Hypothesis.

C. Protenoid Microspheres

D. Deep sea Hydrothermal Vent Theory.

E. From Organic Molecules To Protocells

VI—Probability Of Origin Of life On Earth By Random Chance

A. Formation Of Proteins And Nucleotides

B. Assembly Of Proteins Into A Metabolically Active System

C. Arrangement Of These Molecules Into Biologically Active DNA.

D. Arrangement Of Proteins And DNA Into A Self-replicating Cell

VII—Life In Milky Way Galaxy And Universe

A. Extraterrestrial Life

B. Life In The Solar System Outside Of Earth.

1. Enceladus

2. Europa

3. Mars

4.Titan

5. Io moon

CHAPTER V

LIVING MATTER

LIVING CELLS AND GENETIC MATERIALS

I—Living Organisms Cells

II—Anatomy Of Cells

A. Prokaryotic Cells (Unicellular Organisms)

B. Eukaryotic Cells (Multicellular Of Animal Organism)

C. Eukaryotic Cell (Multicellular) of Plant Organism

III—Living Organisms Genetic Material

A. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

B. DNA Damage

C. DNA Biological Functions (Genes, Chromosomes, Genome).

D. DNA And Synthesis Of Proteins

IV—Genetic Disorder And Diseases

A. Genes Function

B. Genetic Disorders

C. Gene Therapy

D. Genes That Cause Genetic Disorders

E. Other Single Gene Genetic Disorders

F. Chromosome Abnormalities

G. Multifactorial Disorders

H. Mitochondrial Genetic Desorder

I. Mitochondrial Diseases

CHAPTER VI

UNIVERSE ENERGY AND ORGANIC MATTER

I—Definition Of Energy

II—Energy Storage In Living Organisms

III—Transformation Of Universe Energy In Organic Matter

A. Photosynthesis  Light-dependent Reactions

B. Light Independent Calvin Cycle Of Photosynthesis  

IV—Transformation Of Organic Matter In Energy

A. Energy Density Of Organic Matter (Food)

B. Definition Of Metabolism

C. Cell Respiration

1. Glycolysis and carbohydrate metabolism

2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

3. Oxidative Phosphorylation

V—Energy Control In Living Organisms

VI—Carbon Cycle

CHAPTER VII

THE MIRACLE Of F LIFE

I—The Miracle Of Plant Cell

II—The Miracle Of Plant Cell Photosynthesis

III—The Miracle Of Animal cells

IV—The Miracle Of Sense Organs

A. The Vision (The eye)

B. The smell, Odors (the nose)

C. The Taste (The tongue)

D. The Hearing (the ear)

E. Touch

F. The Miracle Of Human body

V—The Miracle Of Living Organisms Intelligence And Information Processing Systems.

A. Plants System

B. Animal System.

VI—The Miracle Of Living Organisms Defense System

A. Structure of the Immune System

B. Natural And Acquired Immunity

VII—The Miracle Of Living Organisms Circulatory System.

A. Heart.

B. Human Embryonic Heart Development.

C. Animal Embryonic Heart Development

D. Resemblance Of Embryonic Heart Development And Evolution of Human.

IX—The Miracle Of Cell Genetic Material

A. DNA

B. Genetic Disorder And Diseases

X—The Miracle Of Cell Division And Reproduction

A. The Asexual Reproduction

B. The Sexual Reproduction

XI—The Miracle of Embryo Development

A. In humans

B. In flower Plants

XII—The Miracle Of Stem Cells

A. Embryonic Stem Cells

B. Adult Stem Cell

C. Embryonic Stem Cells Therapy And Tissue Engineering

D. Cell Tissue Engineering

CHAPTER VIII

LIFE, GOD, RELIGION: PRESENT AND FUTURE

I—Are Humans Still Evolving Genetically?

II—Life: Creation Or Evolution

A. Living Cell

B. Living Cell Energy Photosynthesis

C. Living Cell Power Generator

D. Living Cell Genetic Matter

E. Living Cell Quality Control

F. Living Cell Division and Reproduction

G. Living Organism Stem Cell

H. Living Organisms Defense System

I. Especial Organs Of Living Organism

J. Is Evolution False?

K. Design or Evolution

L. Cosmic Biogenesis

III—Probability of Life in Milky Way Galaxy.

A. The potential number of extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way Galaxy as calculated by the famous Drake equation.

B. Historical estimates of the parameters

C. Current estimates of the parameters

IV—Why the Human Race Exists?

A. Forms Of Energy

B. Living Organisms And Universe Energy Transformation Systems.

V—Religion Past, Present and future.

A. Nature of Religion.

B. Life After Death

C. Interpretation Of Religion Verses.

VI—Beginning Of A New Faith.

VII—New Concept Of An Universal Cosmic Religion.

VIII- New Concept for Human Race to be a Part of the Universe Community

Why a chemist should write on cosmology? To tell the truth I’ve been debating this question for years, but during my professional life of over 40 years as a chemist I have been dealing with phenomenon, and observations which needed a logical explanation, in many cases, I could find no convincing answer: For example, most of chemical reactions are heat dependant. To prepare food, to create its flavor and aroma depends on heat (roosting beef or baking bread dough). Eliminating hazardous bacteria depends on heat treatment (sterilizing medical tools). Even our own life is heat depended (who can live without heat?). But when you ask what is heat? Physically speaking you cannot find a convincing answer.

We eat food which is composed of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals, hundreds of them. To separate and identify them requires an extreme elaborate Large chemical laboratory equipped with sophisticated technology, specialized equipments and highly trained chemists, requiring extensive amount of time to do it. Yet astonishingly, a microscopic animal cell can do the job in seconds! How can the cell do that within the framework of chemistry and physics as we know it? Again no convincing answer.

In search for answers, we can easily detect that the roots of chemistry is entangled with particle physics, basic structure of matter, thermodynamics and then we finally face the big question of how all of these particles and matters are formed? That is where cosmology and astrophysics comes in, it represents the beginning of every science and activity we know and practice. Cosmology, particle physics and thermodynamic are forming the basis of our understanding of the entire universe, our thoughts, our scientific and technological build up and finally our societies development. It is not surprising that we call our centers of scientific and technological development University. The universe is our infinite source of knowledge. Therefore evolution of cosmology and astrophysics are intertwined in the evolution of our human society and must be evaluated in the light of its impact on others branches of science.

It is not extraordinary that someone outside of a profession could criticize its basic and fundamental concepts. One of the best books on nutrition Fit for Life was written by two people who were not nutritionists(*). Einstein was a simple clerk in a patent office when he wrote the Theory of Relativities. The point is someone outside a particular field of science can, sometimes have a clearer perspective; when he is not overloaded by the huge amounts of details which may cloud (myopic) that vision. He can see the bigger picture in a way which may fit better with other fields of knowledge.

INTRODUCTION

The universe and life on our plant earth has always fascinated me since my childhood, but a lack of scientific knowledge and a later lack of time made it very difficult to satisfy my ever lasting desire for a profound understanding of how the universe and life started, works, and what role God plays in both. When I got my scientific back-ground at a level sufficient to understand the various theories and hypothesis on the subject, I found that most of them raise more questions than answers. When I retired from the university of Campinas UNICAMP in Brazil in2004, I spent the following 7 years tackling this subject, the result of this effort is summarized in this book which is basically an analyses of the human scientific knowledge, and its significance and contribution to a better understanding of the creation of the universe and life on earth.

The entire book contains approximately 241 pages and over 180 photos and illustrative figures. The book is divided in two parts:

The first part THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE contains three chapters dealing with the origin of the basic particles, matter and energy. A critical analysis of the Big Bang theory is given, and a new model for the creation of matter and the universe is presented. The model explains the expansion of the universe in a more adequate and satisfactory mode. Also it gives an answer to why every star and planet in the universe is spinning, why the light moves at incredible speed for billions of years?, the nature of dark energy and antimatter, origin of inorganic matter, the fate of the universe, disintegration and recycling of matter and energy, the possibility and impact of the use of the universe energy on human life, and finally an answer to the eternal question, did God create the universe?

The second part THE ORIGIN OF LIFE ON EARTH contains five chapters, starting with the origin of life itself, the fantastic world of living cells and genetic material, the universe energy and organic and living matter, the miracle of life, Is it creation or evolution?, probability of extraterrestrial life, Are we alone in the universe?, Why the Human race exists? What is the purpose of the existence of humans? Is there life after death? Finally, the role of God in the creation of life, Is there a need for universal cosmic religion?

Due to the nature of work presented in the book, which include particle and atomic physics, inorganic, organic and biochemistry, physiology, biology, astrophysics, theology, logic and reasoning, and above all imagination, hundreds of scientists, in every corner of the world, over thousands of years have contributed to the knowledge leading to the information which made this book possible. Without their efforts it would be impossible to achieve it. Thus, I consider this work as a contribution of all mankind to the enhancement of the human vision and understanding of the universe which we are a unique part of it.

CHAPTER I

ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE BASIC PARTICLES

Such a theory of everything will

Explain not only the four forces,

All the particles, the Universe itself,

Galaxies, stars, planets and people, but it will

Also be so simple a set of equations that can

Be written on a t-shirt.

Stephen Hawking

University of Cambridge

To my mind there must be

at the bottom of it all not an equation,

but and utterly simple idea.

And to me that idea when we finally discover it,

will be so compelling, so inevitable,

that we will say to one another, Oh, how beautiful.

How could it have been otherwise?

John Wheeler

University of Texas

I—The Beginning Of Space And Time.

The interest of man kind in how the universe came about, and how it works is as old as human civilization, the first notion of the subject was introduced more than 4500 years ago in Egypt in the form of a religion, since then the search of man for an answer never ceased. In recent times in forms of theory, two major ideas were presented and can be summarized as follow:

A. Steady-State Theory.

In 1948, th Austrian-born American astronomer Thomas Gold and co-workers, based on the cosmological assumption that the universe is basically the same every where, introduced this theory, stating that the universe has always been essentially the same as it is today and probably will continue the same for ever. In other words, as far as space and time are concerned, the universe is the same. They calculated that to maintain the universe the same in face of the universal expansion detected by Edwin Hubble, all what is needed is one single new hydrogen atom for a structure as big as skyscraper per century. This theory was supported by vireos astronomers (Fred Hoyle, for example) and was considered to be a valid explanation of how the universe began for almost two decades. However, it did not describe how the universe was created in the first place and how the matter came along?

B. Big Bang Theory

This theory was introduced in the late 1920s by the Belgian astronomer and Jesuit priest Georges-Henri Lemaitre (1894-1966) in a book called The Primeval Atom, who came to be known as the father of the Big Bang.

Lemaitre confirmed the work of the Russian mathematician Alexander Friedmann that the universe may be expanding and deduced that if the universe is expanding, then by going back in time one would find that every thing in the universe must have started from one point which exploded and expanded outward creating the universe as we see it today.

The big bang theory, today, is the most widely accepted theory of how the universe was created.

There is a general agreement between cosmologists that the universe including all matter and space was created fifteen or twenty billion years ago in an immense (big) explosion (bang). According to the Theory, everything in the universe was concentrated in an infinitely dense, smaller than an atom, point which in a single instant underwent an immense explosion, extremely hot ball (temperature of 10³² K) of gaseous subatomic particles that filled and expanded a trillion-trillion fold, creating all the space, matter and energy that now make up the galaxies and stars. Theoretical physicists and cosmologists have provided an incredible, unbelievable description of the probable sequence of events that gave rise to our universe!!:

1. The time from the moment of the explosion up to 10-43 known as the Planck time (after the physicist Planck, Max) all forces of nature was combined into a single super force and laws of physics were still being formed.

2. From 10-43 to 10-35 second space expanded sufficiently to reduce the temperature to 10²⁷ K. The super force by now separated in two forces; gravity and strong nuclear and electroweak forces. The universe expanded 10⁵⁰ times in only 10-32 seconds!! The subatomic particles, quarks and leptons, had come into existence.

3. At 10-12 seconds the electroweak force separated to form electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force. At that moment all four forces of nature were now separated namely gravitation, strong and weak nuclear force, and electromagnetic force. Subatomic particles leptons separated into neutrinos and electrons. Quarks existed but as separate entities. Temperature at that moment (10¹⁰ K) was too high preventing them joining to form heavier particles.

4. At 10-6 second quarks come together to form neutrons and protons. Their antiparticles did the same and then annihilated with the matter. However a tiny part (one particle in every billion) was left which formed all the matter in the universe as we know it today.

5. At the end of the first second the temperature had fallen to 10¹⁰ K. Later, 15 seconds after the Big Bang, protons and neutrons joined to form deuterium nuclei and few minutes later, helium nuclei (2 protons and 2 neutrons). The temperature was still high (+ -10⁶ K), enough that atoms were ionized and existed as nuclei in a sea of electrons. The energy was so dense that radiation could not even escape until 300.000 years later.

6. At 300.000 years after the Big Bang the temperature was down to 3.000K and atoms were formed as nuclei attracted electrons. Matter joined together in a form of clouds that 300 million years later formed stars, galaxies, and planets. The average temperature of the universe dropped to 3K which is known as cosmic background radiation.

C. Support Of The Big Bang Theory.

The Big Bang model for the creation of the universe is based on a number of effects.

1. The universe is expanding and galaxies are receding from each other with a velocity proportional to distance between them. The expansion of the universe was discovered by astronomer Edwin Hubble in the 1929, who found that spectral lines characteristic of a particular element in the light emitted by galaxies had moved forwards the red (longer) wavelength, implying that light waves had been stretched and space between galaxies are expanding. [Although space does not expand on earth, solar system or even within a galaxy because of force of gravity, but it expands between groups of galaxies]. The faster the galaxies moves away, the more its light shifts to the red end of the spectrum. Supposedly it is possible to tell how fast a body is moving away and how far away it is by the amount of its red shift. Therefore if the universe is expanding, the big bang theory assumes that it must have started expanding from an initial point as little as it may be.

2. Presence of background residue of microwave radiation. The discovery of background radiation in 1965 by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson using radio horn at Bell laboratories was considered a critical point to prove the theory of the Big Bang. The microwave radiation is supposed to be formed 300.000 - 500.000 years after the Big Bang starting point. As the universe cooled down its temperature and electrons were attracted to nuclei forming atoms, and photons became able to travel large distances without colliding with other particles. The radiation released during this event is detectable today. It is consistent across the universe representing a temperature of 3K.

II—The Universe Particles And Matter

All matter, atoms, molecules in the universe are composed of two types of particles: element and fundamental (sub atomic). Since the atom is very small to be seen and even smaller atom nuclei and electron, the only way to detect their presence is through their electrical characteristics. By permitting collisions between particles and atoms, the subatomic particles may be detected. These are the real subatomic particles that cannot be broken down into smaller components.

A. Elements Particles:

These are the five stable particles that make up the atom, namely:

Electrons, protons, neutrons, photons and neutrinos. These particles never decay. The electrons, protons and neutrons which exist in clearly defined structure known as Fermions. The photons and neutrinos, known as Bosons, don’t have a clearly defined structure. Electrons are negatively charged particles and have mass.

Protons carry a positive electrical charge and have a mass 1836 times that of an electron.

Neutrons have no charge and if released from an atomic nucleus, decays into proton, electron and antimatter neutrino.

Photon and neutrinos have no mass and hardly interact with matter. Photon carries electromagnetic force. Protons and neutrons are composed of quarks. The structure of atoms is presented below.

fig01.tif

Figure 01: Matter particles

B. Subatomic Particles.

Subatomic particles are the smaller particles composing of atoms. There are two types of subatomic particles: elementary particles, which are not made of other particles, and composite particles which are.

Elementary particles of the Standard Model include:

• Six types of quarks: up, down, bottom, top, strange, and charm;

• Six types of leptons: electron, electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neutrino;

• Twelve gauge bosons (force carriers): the photon of electromagnetism, the three W and Z bosons of the weak force, and the eight gluons of the strong force.

Quarks it is considered as fundamental particles, in spite of the fact that they do not exist as a separate particle. They are actually exist as a double quark (quark paired with antiquark) known as meson or as triplet quark known as baryon. Meson and Baryon form a category known as Hadrons. Mesons are short-lived, however, because the quark and anti-quark pair annihilates one another. Quarks have a fractional electrical charge of either positive 2/3 or negative 1/3.

Proton which have an electrical charge of 1 is composed of two quark up [(2x2/3(+))=1 1/3 positive] and one quark down [=1/3 negative] therefore give particle of 1 positive charge.

Neutrons with no electrical charge is composed of one quark up (+2/3) and two quark down (2x-1/3)=-2/3 therefore canceling each others charge and gives net quark charge of zero.

C. Dark (unseen) Matter and Energy.

There are several important observations which indicate strongly the presence of dark energy and dark matter (matter we cannot see). Given that dark matter is -by definition- not visible, the presence of the chunks of dark matter deduced by looking at the gravitational lensing it produces on visible matter. Gravity bends light, recall, and so if some light coming from an object, such as a star, or a whole galaxy, when it passes by something massive (such as a clump of dark matter) its path will get bent on its way to the observer.

The individual galaxies in the cluster moves as if it has ten times as much matter than that exists than can be seen in the stars. But considering their relative speed, which separates them, and the matter galaxies ought to have to pull them together, astronomers reached the conclusion, that there must be other unseen material holding these galaxies in cluster, because, if it depends on the matter we see in these galaxies, it would not remain together and within a certain time they would be separated totally and eventually disappear in relation to each other.

Dark energy is that hypothetical energy that permeates all space, increases the rate of expansion of the universe, and accounts for about 73% of the total mass energy of the universe. 

Dark matter is hypothetical matter that does not interact with the electromagnetic force, but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter.

fig01a.tif

The new Chandra observations include estimates of the