Inherit the Dust from the Four Winds of Revilla: A 250-Year Historical Perspective with Emphasis on Ancient Guerrero, Its People and Its Land Grants

By José M. Peña

Rich in period analysis, here is fascinating historical perspective covering 250 years of existence primarily of a 1750 Spanish settlement originally called Villa del Seor San Ignacio de Loyola de Revilla and now known as "Guerrero Viejo." Although many books cover the genealogical aspects of families that originated in this city, the historical contributions of the early pioneers, their descendents, and the controversy related to land grants, called Porciones -- awarded by the King of Spain -- have, for the most part, remained in the background. This, then, is the principal objective of this book. The book provides summaries on the evolution, history, wars, and problems of Mexico. Using some of his ancestors as a sample, the author shows the hardships they endured and discusses their contribution in the formation of the two great nations that the United States and Mexico have become.

At the same time, the book shows that the land grants (and heirs) took one of two alternate roads -- depending on their location -- when Texas and other territories were ceded to the United States. People and land grants located on the Mexican side were victims of the violent and blood soaked history that Mexico has had. On the other hand, those located on the U.S. side, were subjected to mischief and flagrant violations of the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Sadly, in 1953, the Falcon Dam inundated Guerrero Viejo and many of the land grants.

Thus, for all intents and purposes, the heirs of most land grants met the same end and a financial obligation (of $193.0 Million plus interest) exchanged between the U.S. and Mexico has remained unpaid for over 80 years. The reader will long-remember the amazing facts developed in this book.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: May 16, 2006
• ISBN: 9781462817405

José M. Peña

Jose M. Peña was born and grew in Laredo, Texas and is a graduate from the University of Texas. His parents and many of his forbears were born in either Revilla or Guerrero Viejo. He is a retired Foreign Service Officer with over 30 years of service with the U.S. Agency For International Development assigned to many less-developed countries; a former private financial consultant on a variety of activities; a Director to a specific health project in Guatemala; Consultant with Organization of American States; specialist in internal auditing, programmatic and financial studies, evaluative analyses, systems studies, and special reviews. He also served in a number of high positions of management, supervisory, interpersonal skills in diverse development programs and situations.

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Contents

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 Mexico’s Evolution and the Spaniard’s Conquest

Chapter 3 First Two Hundred Years AfterConquest

Chapter 4 Parade of Ancestors and Families

Chapter 5 Establishment of Revilla and Other Settlements

Chapter 6 Degree of Conversion of the Indian Nations

Chapter 7 Land Grants of Revilla

Chapter 8 Life in Revilla and Guerrero

Ch apter 9 Prologue to a Violent Mexican History

Chapter 10 Mexico’s Independence from Spain

Chapter 12 The Loss of Texas and other Territories

Chapter 13 Mexico’s Restoration

Chapter 14 Mexico’s Porfiriato

Chapter 15 Mexico’s Revolution

Chapter 16 Mexico’s Postrevolution

Chapter 17 Mexico’s Recent History

Chapter 18 The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

Chapter 19 Some Problems in Implementing Treaty of GuadalupeHidalgo

Chapter 20 Appointment of the Bourland-Miller Commission

Chapter 21 Mexico’s Debt to the Heirs of Texas Land Grants

Chapter 22 Court Rulings: Asociacion de Reclamantes v Mexico

Chapter 23 Destruction of Guerrero and Visions of the Past

Appendices 1-26: Genealogical Charts

Appendix 27: List of People Who Settled in Revilla per

1753 Census

Appendix 28: List of People Who Settled in Revilla per

1757 Census

Endnotes

Acknowledgments

This book started as a simple genealogy study. The author merely wanted to know his roots and names of the principal abuelos and abuelas (forefathers). However, the focus of the study began to change after the author walked the streets of what remains of Villa del Señor San Ignacio de Loyola de Revilla (now known as Guerrero Viejo). Although this was once a beautiful city, only rubble, jumbled walls, weeds, and the sturdiest of buildings are now found. Yet those skeletal remains provide a ghostly and somber reminder of eras that have long gone by, of huge personal sacrifices that are no longer remembered, and of ways of life that beg not to be forgotten.

It was the ambience of this old city that begged the author to go beyond his original scope of the research. In fact, there has been a great deal of focus on the genealogical aspects of families that originated in Revilla, or Guerrero Viejo. However, the historical contribution of those pioneers and the controversy related to the land grants—awarded by the King of Spain—has, for the most part, remained in the background. This, then, is the principal objective of this book. The book provides a brief summary on the evolution and history of Mexico. In many cases, using his ancestors as a sample of some of the people who graced 250 years of history, the author discusses their contribution in the formation of the two great nations that the United States and Mexico have become. At the same time, the analysis of this book shows that the land grants (and heirs) took one of two alternate roads—depending on their location—when Texas and other territories were ceded to the United States. Those land grants located on the Mexican side were victims of the violent and the blood-soaked history that Mexico has had. On the other hand, those land grants, which were located on the U. S. side, were subjected to mischief and flagrant violations of the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. For all intent and purposes, the heirs of most land grants met the same end, and certain financial obligations of Mexico remain unpaid.

The history of the two countries (and Texas) is an integral part of the story to be told in this book. Thus, this study is, to most extent, dependent on many historical sources, and the author recognizes that there may be errors in fact or judgment; these are solely his. However, he is deeply indebted to many different authors of books and unknown sources who have placed material in the Internet. Whenever names were available, they are included either as footnotes or in the bibliography section of this book. There were people and organizations that made special contributions to the research and effort. They included José Felipe de La Peña, whose books on family trees, family names, and land grants, proved to be extremely valuable. Ms. Mira Smithwick—president of the Spanish American Genealogy Association (SAGA) based in Corpus Christi, Texas—who provided extremely valuable computerized runs from SAGA’s database, which grouped different families of forefathers. She was always ever so helpful. Mr. Galen Greaser and the Texas General Land Office provided essential books and leads to other helpful material. They also clarified aspects related to the land grants. The Nettie Benson Library of the University of Texas provided exceptional books and space to read them. The Texas Historical Commission provided a number of pictures showing sites from Guerrero Viejo. The Xlibris Corporation did an exceptional work in editing and publishing this book.

The author also owes special thanks to friends and relatives whose help, contributions, constructive criticism, editing, and different forms of assistance are hereby acknowledged and appreciated. They include Martha Cuellar, Carlos R. Cabrera, Carmen Cabrera, Ernesto Uribe, David and Mary Jacobs.

The book is dedicated to all my extended family, including Pauline A. Peña, my wife; José M. Peña IV, my oldest son, and his family: Lucy Sanchez Peña and Estela Peña, my granddaughter; Jerry Peña, my second son; Lauren Marie Bucher, my other granddaughter; and Melissa Gicela Peña, my youngest daughter.

A special dedication goes to Linda Marisol Peña Bucher, my daughter, who passed away February 10, 2004; she was truly beautiful, creative, exceptional, and an inspiration to all of us. We miss her terribly. The moral support and help she gave me during her lifetime was most welcomed.

Chapter 1

Introduction

The Villa del Señor San Ignacio de Loyola de Revilla and the Village of San Agustin de Laredo were in a festive mood those days of August 1767. The settlers had been awarded parcels of land called porciones by the King of Spain, and the day had come when they would finally participate in a ceremony that would entitle them final possession of their property.

This was indeed a joyous time in the history of the conquest of New Spain, or Mexico as it is now known. Before the arrival of the Spaniards, 250 years before, the territory had gone through a thirty thousand-year evolution that had seen it inhabited by many great indigenous civilizations (Olmec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya, Toltec, Mixtec, and Aztecs). These eventful periods had lasted until 1519 when the Spanish conquistador Don Hernando Cortés anchored his eleven ships and five hundred men at what is now the port of Veracruz. Once there, he burned or sunk the ships to signify that there would be no return. It would be either victory or death. With the help of Indians from Tabasco and the belief by the Mexica (Aztecs) that a descendent of the long-awaited god (Quetzalcoatl) had arrived, the Spaniards had marched into Tenochtitlan, modern-day Mexico City. Through an Indian translator (La Malinche), Cortés and Moctezuma, the Mexica emperor, were able to dialogue for a time. But Cortés and his men were, by nature, ruthless people. They confused entertainers with a trap and began to systematically torture and kill everyone in sight. Just about that point also, the Mexica Indians began to fall sick and to experience, for the first time in their lives, the scourge of diseases (smallpox and others) brought by the conquerors to the New World. Having no immunity to these diseases, huge numbers of Indians began to die.

Moctezuma was slow to realize that the Spaniards were mortal enemies who could not be trusted. His people revolted, and battles between Indians and Spaniards erupted. Moctezuma and his son were immediately captured.

When Moctezuma tried to stop the battles, he was struck by a stone and mortally wounded. He agonized for three days and died. After Moctezuma’s death, Cuauhtemoc took his place. He too was captured in 1521, tortured, and hanged in 1525. While captive, he made a prophecy that the conquerors would suffer immensely in the new country. The first part of the conquest of Mexico had ended. The expansion and colonization of new parts of Mexico would begin.

Time had gone by, and the Spaniards had continued to explore and expand their conquest toward the north of New Spain or El Seno Mexicano. As the relentless march toward the north continued, numerous contacts with other aboriginal Indian Nations were encountered. By then, sixty-three Indian Nations would be identified—some friendly, others hostile. With the encroachment from the northern part of the continent—by the French, the English, displaced Indians, and pirates—King Philip V of Spain was under pressure to colonize the new land. In mid-1700, Don José de Escandon, a person with many titles, was authorized to settle different villages along a river that is now known as the Rio Grande.

To provide incentives for people to move to the new villages, the new settlers were promised land grants and were to be free from taxation for ten years. José de Escandon was successful in finding settlers for twenty-three different villages, among them were Nuestra Señora de Santa Ana de Camargo (established in 1749), Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Reynosa, (1749), Guemes, Santo Domingo de Hoyos y Real de Borbon, Aguayo, Llera, Escandon, San Juan Bautista de Horcasitas, Altamira, San Antonio de Padilla, Santander, Santillana, Soto la Marina, San Fernando, Hacienda de Dolores, Burgos, San Lorenzo del Jaumave, Santa Barbara, Palmillas, Infantes, Roma (1765), Mier (1753), San Ygnacio (1750), Dolores (1750), and Villa del Señor San Ignacio de Loyola de Revilla. 1

In October 15, 1750, a total of forty families estimated at about 200 people had settled in the Villa del Señor San Ignacio de Loyola de Revilla—simply called Revilla from now on—and five families settled in the Village of San Agustin de Laredo, or Laredo, in 1755.

Some of the author’s forefathers graced the pages of history both during the early periods and at the time that Revilla was settled. They included Captain Francisco de Elizondo and his son General Pedro de Elizondo who negotiated or fought with the Indians. They also included some of the original settlers of Revilla, like Vicente García; María Joséfa Gertrudis de Elizondo (his wife and ten children); Capt. Cristobal Benavides and Margarita Ochoa (his wife and six children); Bartolomé de Lizarraras y Cuellar and María Gregoria Martinez (his wife and nine children); Pedro Vela and María Gertrudis de Lizarraras y Cuellar (his wife and ten children); Joséph Francisco García and María Maxima Treviño (wife and seven children); Francisco Xavier Peña, María Antonia Ñaga (his wife), Joséph de Jesus Peña (their son), and five other children.

By this August 1767 day, the town, the ejidos, and the porciones had already been measured using an antiquated measuring system (cordeles, varas, leguas, caballerías, sitios de ganado menor y mayor, etc. ). And because of the aridity of the land in the settlements—and especially in Revilla and Laredo—all porciones were huge (5, 300 to 7, 700 acres) and designed to have an access to the several rivers; they were, to be more precise, strange rectangular tracts of land: narrow in width and elongated in length. In all, seven different sizes existed.

The following ten ancestors took possession of the porciones in 1767 and one in 1784:

As each grantee got to his land tract, the judge or commissioner—who represented the king—and the grantee-to-be would go through what must have been then an intensely emotional ceremony. Typically,

the commissioner would identify the porcion, its location, and the landowner. He would identify the witnesses (family, neighbors, etc. ). He would call out and ask if there were any objections to the possession of the land.

Getting the desired responses, the commissioner would then take the respective recipient by the hand and In the name of His Majesty (may God guard him) and go around with the new owner on a corresponding circle. The new owner would pick up [dust and] stones and throw them to the four winds. He then plucked weeds and herbs, got water, and irrigated the earth, opened and shut the door of the house, and performed other demonstration in proof of delivery until he was well satisfied. The new owner would then obligate himself to erect permanent landmarks and to preserve in the cultivation and settlement of said land as much as he possibly could, avoiding all discords and enemies. The judge would cite that this was all done in due form of law and name the persons who had witnessed the execution of the ceremony.

Afterward, the judge would write up the ceremony, and the land belonged to the new owner.

And so it was that the ceremony for the ten ancestors took place:

• Capt. Cristobal Benavides received two porciones (nos. 6 and 7) and called the ranch Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Jamaica. These porciones were located close to the Ejido and had an outlet to the Rio Grande del Norte.

• Juan José Benavides received porcion 8 but had not named the ranch. This porcion was also close to the Ejido, and its water source was Rio Grande del Norte.

• Pedro Vela received porcion 34 and called it San Diego. His porcion was also very close to the Ejido, and its water source was Rio Salado.

• Jacinto de Cuellar—in representation of himself; his father, Joachin Lizarraras y Cuellar; and brother Bartolomé Lizarraras y Cuellar—received porciones 35, 36, and 37, and called all three Las Animas. Later, Bartolomé Lizarraras y Cuellar appeared to have renamed the ranch as El Capitaneño.

• Vicente García got porcion 47. This was located at the confluence of the Salado River and Sabinas River. It was very near El Paso del Moro, or Moor’s Pass, and he named it San Martin.

• Nicolas Martinez received porcion 60 and named it San Francisco. His porcion had its water source at the Rio Grande del Norte.

• Although Francisco Xavier Peña and his son, Joséph de Jesus Peña, were original settlers of Revilla, they received porciones 2 and 3 in Villa de Laredo.

• Francisco García received porcion 3 in 1784, but no name is given. This porcion was located on the north side—now Zapata (Texas)—and its source was also the Rio Grande.

There were sixty-eight such grants given in Revilla, and a total of 438 land grants were granted in all villages.

The symbolism of throwing dust and stones to the four winds cannot be overemphasized. At that time, the actions were for a happy occasion—the pioneers were being rewarded for their valor and the hard-earned efforts in opening these new lands. These pioneers would now be able to leave property in the new lands to their rightful heirs. At that time, however, there was no way for the settlers to have known or to have predicted then the terrible turmoil that would befall the country, the land grants, and their heirs in the next 250 years:

• There would be a well-intended revolution in 1821, and Mexico would become independent from Spain.

• There would be changes to the name of the village after seventy-seven years, and Villa del Señor San Ignacio de Loyola de Revilla would be renamed Ciudad Guerrero.

• There would be a number of Indian Nations that would be friendly at first and later turn against the settlers.

• There would be an insurrection in 1836, and the republic of Texas would secede from Mexico and later would be annexed to the United States.

• The French would try to rule Mexico, only to be challenged by Mexican patriots, and the emperor (Maximilian) would be executed, and the empress (Charlotte) would become insane.

• There would be a war between the United States and Mexico. This conflict would result in the loss of additional Mexican territory including New Mexico, California, and the Mesilla Valley.

• The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo would become effective on July 1, 1848. This treaty would resolve the United States and Mexican conflict and effectively divide the land grants into those that would be subject to the volatility of Mexican history and those that would be exposed to the whims of the U.S. laws.

For land grants on the Mexican side, the following would happen:

• The land would be summarily confiscated during the thirty-four-year presidency of Porfirio Díaz.

• There would be an extremely violent Mexican Revolution in 1910, which would result in numerous political upheavals, murders of leaders, and constant change that would have dire personal consequences to the settlers and their heirs.

For land grants on the U.S. side, the following would happen:

• There would be a board of commission (the Bourland-Miller Commission) created in 1850 to sort out land ownership and rule over on disputes of land. The board would make mistakes in recommending titles to land on the U.S. side.

• There would be losses of essential ownership documents when the steamer Anson sunk or was sunk as it crossed the Brazos Santiago Pass.

• The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo would be frequently misinterpreted and violated in the future.

For land grants on both sides, the following would happen:

• There would be people with few scruples, ready to commit fraud, terrorize, and kill for the land.

• There would be exponential growth in the number of heirs that would create problems in the inheritance factors.

• There would be a dam (the Falcon Dam) built, which would submerge Guerrero Viejo underwater and sadly wipe out this great historical city; the inhabitants would be forced to move to a new location at Nuevo Guerrero, Tamaulipas.

• There would be a 1941 agreement to address U.S. violations of the Treaty of Guadalupe being carried since 1923 and problems created when Mexico expropriated U.S. companies—owned properties, where the United States and Mexico would exchange debts. Mexico was to have paid $193 million plus interest to the rightful heirs (later organized into an association: the Associación de Reclamantes).

• The case between the Associación de Reclamantes (claimant heirs) and Mexico would be heard in U.S. Courts and Court of Appeals. The district court would sympathize with the claimants but refuse to hear the case. The court of appeals would refuse to hear the case but make dangerous legal statements.

Perhaps Cuauhtemoc’s prophecies continue to come true or maybe not. More likely, the forces of history and human nature were just meant to be that way.

What is certain is that Mexico has had the most violent history; and its different phases are marked by political turmoil, internecine fighting, frequent leadership changes, constitutional changes, peasant uprisings, labor unrest, corruption, treachery, looting, murders, assassinations, executions, anarchy, banditry, countrywide insecurity, international intrigues and interventions, population displacement, and a great loss of life. Even today, Mexico has extremely difficult political, economic, social, and human-rights problems that do not augur well for the future.

Given this unfortunate history, Mexico probably never meant to completely abide by the 1941 treaty. It used the treaty when it was to its advantage; however, it chose to disregard its terms when it came to its debts. In fact, with all its endemic financial and corruption problems, Mexico has refused to honor its $193 million debt (plus interest) or to seek ways to compensate the heirs. A more ominous portent for any possible settlement is that according to the U.S. Court of Appeals, Mexico’s financial obligations to the heirs are now placed beyond any practical legal recourse that the heirs could pursue. Mexico has played a very effective game of waiting the heirs out.

On the other hand, the United States—with its manifest destiny and expansionist philosophy that prevailed in the 1840s—was probably a silent partner to the many land-grabbing incursions that took place before the Mexican-American War. It later presaged the stage for violating the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo when it rejected the incorporation of Article X to the agreement. Article X gave Mexican land grants equal protection as if they had remained within the territory of Mexico. Afterward, the United States sanctioned losses of land grants through a tapestry of court rulings and several other means.

In any event, most land grants, in both countries, have been lost in different ways. Land was summarily confiscated and misappropriated in Mexico as a result of country policies and laws. Land was abandoned because of civil disorders, civil wars, and/or Indian unrest. Land was fraudulently sold or transferred. Land was seized as a result of erroneous measurement, for nonpayment of taxes, and/or usurious legal fees. Lands were also lost because they had not been recorded in time or based on arbitrary court rulings. And finally, a great deal of land was inundated and lost when the Falcon Dam was built and destroyed the ancient city of Revilla, or Guerrero.

And so in the year 2004, the original land grants have dissipated—just like the dust in the four winds of Revilla—and we, the heirs to the original settlers(now also part of the problem due to our population exponential multiplication), seem destined to «inherit the dust and stones thrown to the four winds.»

As the reader might surmise, the above summary will serve as a working outline for the remainder of this book. This book is not meant to be a complete chronology of genealogical or historical events. From a genealogical point of view, no study can be deemed complete. Certainly, given the exponential multiplication within the families, it was never the intention of the author to account for every person or for each date that a birth, a marriage, or a death took place. Therefore, the study represents a very small indentation in the wealth of information that might yet be developed. Sometime in the future, there may be a follow-on book in this respect.

Moreover, because of the extensive nature of the history of Mexico, the United States, Texas, and other territories, the material presented in this book should not be deemed as all-inclusive. Time and space would not permit such undertaking. Rather, the reader’s expectation should be to find a brief picture of historical events and those that touched the lives of the author’s forefathers and peers during the past 250 years.

These people—men, women, and children—were truly exceptional. They explored, opened areas, and settled lands during a time when Mexico was not yet a nation, the Constitution of the United States had not yet been conceived, the United States had not yet declared its independence, and Texas was not yet a separate state. These were, indeed, dangerous times. These pioneers richly deserve to be recognized and given their rightful place in the history of two great nations.

At the same time, the author notes with anguish the violation of the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the dispossession, theft, and/or misappropriation of some lands belonging to the ancestors; such actions were perhaps done with either the overt or silent consent of the United States government.

It is equally regrettable that Mexico has refused to settle its debt of $193 million (plus interest) to the heirs of the original settlers of Revilla and the other twenty-two Villas del Norte. This eighty-year-old problem deserves to have a better and more satisfactory historical conclusion.

Chapter 2

Mexico’s Evolution and the

Spaniard’s Conquest

Introduction. Mexico is part of an area whose history dates back to over thirty thousand years—a time when there were no borders between countries. The area has been described by archeologists as Mesoamerica and includes all nations that separate North from South America—that is, the territory that houses the current nations of Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Panama is not mentioned as part of Mesoamerica.

Using this frame of reference, this chapter provides a brief synopsis on the evolution of Mexico through four of its initial periods: the preclassical period, the classical period, the postclassical period, and the Spanish conquest. The map of Mexico follows:

missing image file

The limited objectives of this book will not permit the author to do justice to either the description or achievements of the different Indian cultures—particularly the Mayan culture and the Aztecs—or all events that took place during the conquest. The reader should make every effort to read about these fabulous people from books and from the Internet. Several sources (see footnotes and end of the chapter) include extensive historical observations and pictures.

Quetzalcoatl. The god Quetzalcoatl is discussed at this point because it was worshipped by a number of Mesoamerican civilizations and played the most important part in 1519 when Moctezuma confused Cortés’s landing with the return of this deity.

Quetzalcoatl has been called several other names. The Mayas from Mexico called him Kukulcan. The Mixtecs called him Nine Wind. The Mayas in Quiche, Guatemala, called (and call) him Gukumatz or Tohil.

Although there are different theories on Quetzalcoatl; and time has mixed history, legend and myth; and there is no clear-cut separation between concepts, researchers think that Quetzalcoatl was a real person who did great things during his time on earth. He is said to have been born in the year 1 Acatl, or between AD 870 and about AD 947. His father was Mixcoatl, and his mother was Chimalman. Mixcoatl (Cloud Serpent) might have been a Toltec ruler. He settled in the valley of Mexico but was killed by his brother before his son was born. Originally named Ce Actl Topiltzin, the young boy was reared by his grandparents and attended religious school. Because of his wisdom and piety beyond his years, the teachers called him Quetzalcoatl. It is said that his full name (Ce Actl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl) can be translated as Our Precious Prince One-Cane Plumed/Feathered Serpent.[1]

After growing up, Quetzalcoatl avenged his father and assumed his rightful place as ruler in the city of Tula. Quetzalcoatl is credited for accomplishing many things. He is said to have (a) created humanity; (b) abolished human sacrifices; (c) authorized the sacrifice of snakes, jade, and butterflies; (d) named the mountains and seas; (e) discovered maize; (f) created fire; (g) authorized the brewing of pulque or balche (a type of liquor); (h) provided instructions for music and dancing; (i) helped with fertility problems; (j) domesticated animals; and (k) others.

Some priests were most upset when Quetzalcoatl abolished human sacrifice, so much so that they called upon Texcatlipoca (Smoking Mirror), an evil god, to get rid of their opponent. one day, they gave Quetzalcoatl a mirror, and he saw himself old. Telling him that he could be young again, the priests gave him some pulque and got him drunk. Losing control of himself, he had sexual relations with a woman.

Learning of his frailties, his people were ashamed. When he realized the shame that he had brought to himself and his supporters, Quetzalcoatl told his people that he had to leave the city of Tula and go away. However, he promised that he or his sons would eventually return from the east in the year 1 Reed (the anniversary of his birth). He fled from his home, across the water, toward Yucatan. Once there, he helped other people (the Mayan) and is credited for constructing the Pyramid of Chichen Itza. Once his work was at a given point, he once again told his people that he was going away, but he or his sons would return from the east. He sacrificed himself by jumping into a self-made funeral pyre.

Yet future civilizations revered and worshipped Quetzalcoatl (Kukulcan or Gukumatz or Tohil) for his benevolence and his promise to imminently return from the east—the exact direction that the Spaniards came from later in 1519.

The Preclassical Period. This period covered a span of 3,800 years, or from 3,500 years Before Christ (BC) to three hundred years after his death (AD). During this period, two groups made their appearance: (a) the olmec culture and (b) the Izapan culture.

The Olmecs. The Olmecs made their appearance in 1,200 BC and are thought to have been around for eight centuries. Their history is mainly known from three important ruins: (a) La Venta, (b) Tres Zapotes, and (c) San Lorenzo. The Olmecs are said to have originated from a Northern African nation where giants used to live.

The olmecs thought that the jaguar was a supernatural being and worshipped a fire serpent that was associated with the earth and the corn god. They traveled all over Mexico, but made their home near the states of Veracruz and Tabasco. They developed a calendar, a hieroglyphic writing system, and achieved feats that are still a wonder to mankind today. One of these achievements was the carving of the first conduit drainage system and another was the carving of six giant basalt heads weighing twenty to forty tons froma type of stone that can only be found fifty miles from their current site.3 The six giant heads are intriguing because they have black African facial features and wear what seems to be a helmet.

The following monument (no. 23) was found at La Venta (note the features):

missing image file

The Izapans. The Izapan culture had their ceremonial center in the lowland of Chiapas (Mexico). They grew cacao and might have traded on this product. Of this culture, only a few structures survive. They include eighty platforms of clay, 250 upright stone monuments, some round altars, and fifty stelae. These depict storm gods getting water or riding canoes or displaying heads of rivals. The Izapans might have been around in 36 BC. Not much else is known.4

The Classical Period. This period covered a span of six hundred years, or from AD 300 to AD 900. six distinct groups made their appearance during this time: (a) the Teotihuacans, (b) the Cholulans, (c) the Zapotecs, (d) the Mayas, (e) the Huastecs, and (f) the Totonacs. Their common unification factor was that their priests had great power (politics, science, and culture); and they worshipped an array of gods and goddesses including the sun, moon, rain, water, fire, corn, and Quetzalcoatl—who appears around this time. Each group is discussed briefly.

The Teotihuacans. The legacy of the Teotihuacans is an imposing city made up of pyramids that are today a very famous tourist attraction. Teotihuacan is located about thirty miles from Mexico City. In its days of glory, Teotihuacan—the City of the Gods—might have been inhabited by over two hundred thousand people. The small city consists of the Pyramid of the Sun, the Pyramid of the Moon, the Avenue of the Dead, the Ciudadela, the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, and several palaces for the priests. Archeologists have determined that Teotihuacan was deliberately burned and plundered in the seventh century.

The Cholulans. The Cholulans are known for the construction of a pyramid that was dedicated to Quetzalcoatl. This pyramid is supposed to be the tallest structure in all Mesoamerican countries.

The Zapotecs. The Zapotecs had their center in the Valley of oaxaca and Monte Alban—a ceremonial center that had been started in much earlier times. They are known to have had a unique social structure. Although they had a king, the Zapotecs were essentially ruled by the priests. The Zapotecs had a number of battles with the Mixtecs. Both groups eventually intermarried and coexisted for a few centuries.

The Mayans. The Mayans can be traced back to 1,500 BC but are said to have made their historical emergence around AD 300. They reached their zenith between AD 600 and 900. Of the early Mesoamerican cultures, the Mayans are considered to have been the most intellectual, the most industrious, and the most distinguished group. They left a legacy of history, languages, and architectural and social structures that are still being studied. This legacy can still be found in different parts of Mexico (Chiapas and Yucatan); Guatemala (El Peten, Quiche, Quetzaltenango, and Huehetenango); Belize; and Honduras.

Usually, the Mayans settled close to natural water holes (called cenotes), which allowed for survival. Their farming included cultivation of maize, beans, squash, chili peppers, cotton, and cacao. They used the slash and burn procedures still in use today to clear the fields of old crops and to get them ready for new planting.

To the Mayans, science and religion were essential. They revered several deities. Two—Itzamna and Ix Chel—are said to be the father and mother of all other gods. They also worshipped the rain god (Chac) and Quetzalcoatl (or Kukulcan) who was the god of the