Lincoln Castle Revealed: The Story of a Norman Powerhouse and its Anglo-Saxon Precursor

By Jonathan Clark, Justin Garner-Lahire, Cecily Spall and Nicola Toop

This book tells a new story of the royal castle of Lincoln in the north of England, how it was imposed on the late Anglo-Saxon town, and how it developed over the next 900 years in the hands of the English king or his aristocratic associates, leaving us a surviving monument of three great towers, each with its own biography. Led by FAS Heritage, archaeologists, architectural historians and a large cohort of the general public have combined to produce a revealing and accessible account of the story of Lincoln Castle and a reborn historical attraction for the city of Lincoln.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Oxbow Books
• Release date: Aug 4, 2021
• ISBN: 9781789257366

Jonathan Clark

Jonathan Clark is a buildings archaeologist and architectural historian who has spent much of his career researching, recording and analysing medieval castles, houses and monasteries across the British Isles. He has been researching Lincoln Castle for over 20 years and is Lincoln Cathedral Archaeologist.

Book preview

LINCOLN CASTLE REVEALED

LINCOLN CASTLE REVEALED

The story of a Norman powerhouse and its Anglo-Saxon precursor

By

Jonathan Clark, Justin Garner-Lahire, Cecily Spall and Nicola Toop

with contributions by

Craig Barclay, H.E.M. Cool, Shirley Curtis-Summers, Derek Hamilton, Mark Hall, Matilda Holmes, Mandy Jay, Janet Montgomery, Ian M. Rowlandson, Kerry Sayle, Penelope Walton Rogers and Jane Young

Oxford & Philadelphia

Published in the United Kingdom in 2021 by

OXBOW BOOKS

The Old Music Hall, 106–108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JE

and in the United States by

OXBOW BOOKS

1950 Lawrence Road, Havertown, PA 19083

© Oxbow Books and the individual authors 2021

Hardcover Edition: ISBN 978-1-78925-735-9

Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78925-736-6

Kindle Edition: ISBN 978-1-78925-737-3

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Control Number: 2021937054

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher in writing.

For a complete list of Oxbow titles, please contact:

Oxbow Books is part of the Casemate group

Front cover: Aerial view of Lincoln Castle looking east (© Lincolnshire County Council)

Back cover: The Observatory Tower (left); the Lucy Tower (right) (© Lincolnshire County Council)

Contents

List of illustrations

List of tables

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgements

Picture credits

1. The campaign to reveal Lincoln Castle

Introduction

Opportunity

Research incentives

Community involvement

A guide to this book

Overview

Before the Romans

Roman Lincoln

Post-Roman and Anglo-Saxon Lincoln

The medieval castle

Coda: Lincoln Castle into the 21st century

2. The Roman fortress and colonia

Introduction

The legionary fortress

Remains of the fortress in the grounds of Castle Moat House

The Roman colonia

Archaeological observations made in the grounds of Castle Moat House

The Roman colonia beneath the castle

Structures 13 and 14, Roman ‘strip’ houses

Structure 15, a late Roman townhouse

Significant Roman finds

A statue of Domitian?

Life in the townhouse

The end of Roman Lincoln

3. The city beneath the castle

Roman to medieval in the Upper City

Early medieval settlement before the castle

The lost cemetery and church or chapel

Burial 9

Burial 1, the foundation burial

Burial 11

Burial 3

Burial 2

Burial 6, with Burial

Burial 4

Burial 5, the sarcophagus burial

The sarcophagus

Who lived and died in the former Roman city? Portrait of a community

The documentary context of the Masons’ Yard church or chapel

4. The early castle and the Lucy Tower

An introduction to Lincoln Castle

Lincoln and the Norman Conquest

The early castle

The southern enclosure and the lost South Gate

The Lucy Tower

Countess Lucy

The pike mark

A study of the shell-keep

Inside the Lucy Tower

The lost chambers

5. The castle gates and walls

Introduction

West Gate

West Gate barbican and tower

East Gate

The Magna Aula or Great Hall

The castle walls

East curtain wall

North curtain wall

West curtain wall

6. The Observatory Tower

East Range

Ranulf’s Tower

Lincoln Castle and the Anarchy

Structures 9 and 10

The gaol tower

Feasting at Lincoln Castle – the 12th-century midden

A commentary on the dice, by Mark Hall

A commentary on the animal bones, by Matilda Holmes

7. Cobb Hall and the last flowering of the medieval castle

Historical introduction, from King John to Henry III

Strengthening a fortress

Cobb Hall, a new tower

Martial

Official

Regal

All the king’s horses, the castle stables, mill and brewhouse

Cobb Hall and Lincoln Castle in the Civil War

8. Lincoln Castle recreated

The Old Gaol and County Hall

The Georgian gaol, 1785–1788

The gaol yards

The 1820s debtors’ yard or airing court

The new debtors’ yard

Keepers of the gaol

The 1840s prison

The Eastern Courtyard

Death and burial

Romantic ruins

Governor John Merryweather and the gentrification of Lincoln Castle

E J Willson and Lincoln Castle recreated

Lincoln Castle into the 21st century

9 Legacy

Overview

The Roman to Anglo-Scandinavian Upper City

The medieval castle

Rebirth: the Lincoln Castle Revealed project

Digest of evidence

General

1 Glossary of terms

2 Master index to interventions

Roman

3 Roman pottery, Ian M. Rowlandson

4 Roman finds, H.E.M Cool

5 Roman glass, H.E.M Cool

6 Roman coin list, Craig Barclay

7 Roman spindle whorl, Penelope Walton Rogers

Anglo-Saxon, medieval and later

8 Post-Roman pottery, Jane Young

9 The human bone, Shirley Curtis-Summers

10 Multi-isotope analysis, Mandy Jay and Janet Montgomery with data reporting by Derek Hamilton and Kerry Sayle

11 Radiocarbon dating, stable isotope analyses and Bayesian modelling, Derek Hamilton and Kerry Sayle

12 Evidence for textiles, Penelope Walton Rogers

13 Medieval and later finds, Cecily Spall

Bibliography

List of illustrations

Frontispiece. Stone-by-stone drawing of medieval fabric surviving in the south curtain wall, Lucy Tower and Observatory Tower

Endpiece. Stone-by-stone drawing of medieval fabric surviving in the east and west curtain wall, Observatory Tower and Cobb Hall

Double fold. Draft plan of Lincoln by John Speed, 19th July 1607

Chapter 1

Title page illus. Aerial view of Lincoln Castle and Lincoln Cathedral looking south

1. Location of archaeological interventions during the campaign

2. Archaeologist, Richard Jackson, recording stonework in the west wing of the Lucy Tower

3. Lifting the spiral stair over East Gate

4. Volunteer excavators in the Eastern Courtyard

5. People viewing the palimpsest of Roman and medieval walls under excavation in the Eastern Courtyard

6. Children in the finds room learning about pottery from medieval specialist Jane Young

7. Location of Lincoln showing limestone ridge, the River Witham, Roman roads, the Humber, the A1, the North Sea and The Wash

8. Photo of copy of Witham Shield held in The Collection

9. LIDAR image of Lincoln showing layout of Upper and Lower City during the Roman and medieval periods; sites mentioned in the text are shown

Chapter 2

Title page illus. Lithograph of the Lincoln Castle mosaic

10. A: LIDAR image showing the layout of the Roman legionary defences around the Upper City with the proposed fortress plan (after Jones 1988); location of Castle Moat House, Hilton House and archaeological interventions is shown; B: LIDAR image showing the layout of the Roman colonia defences around the Upper City and Lower City by the 3rd century with the proposed colonia plan (after Jones 2003b); archaeological interventions and sites mentioned in the text are shown

11. Topographical survey of the grounds of Castle Moat House showing the rise in levels indicating the remains of the legionary rampart and the location of interventions

12. Remains of legionary earth and timber defences in Intervention 13 with an archaeological drawing of its northern section

13. Reconstruction of the development of the Roman defences

14. Reconstructed plan of the legionary defences at the south-west corner of the fortress based on the results of investigation within the grounds of Castle Moat House

15. A: the cemented boundary wall with revetment steps leading down into the grounds of Hilton House; B: the mortared wall core revealed during monitoring showing the fissure in its make-up thought to be the result of subsidence into the underlying legionary ditch

16. Reconstruction of the plan of strip houses, Structures 13 and 14, and the townhouse, Structure 15, in relation to the colonia street grid

17. Archaeological drawing of the north-facing section of Intervention 26, the trench within the Masons’ Yard undertaken in advance of the construction of the new wall-walk stair and lift

18. A: Photograph of the Roman baby skeleton; B: Archaeologist, Cecily Spall, recording the skeleton of the baby as it was found lying in the drain

19. Reconstructed ground plan of Structure 15, the town-house, showing the rooms encountered and the features identified

20. A: Overhead view of Structure 15, the townhouse, during excavation; B: View of Structure 15 from the top of the Observatory Tower showing its surviving footprint between the Georgian gaol and Victorian prison

21. Large area of painted wall plaster fallen from the walls of one of the rooms within the townhouse

22. Roman hearth belonging to Structure 15, the base is made from a complete roof tile or tegula

23. A: sherd from a creamware flagon with scratched lettering VV; B: sherd from a creamware flagon, possibly the name ‘ Antigoni ’

24. Photograph of bronze eagle’s wing fragment

25. A: a shale bracelet with battlemented decoration; B: a bone hair comb; C: a slate mixing palette

26. A: Roman hexagonal tesserae redeposited in late Saxon layers beneath the Eastern Courtyard; B: Roman glass cup from earth brought in to bury the stub walls of Structure 15, the Roman townhouse

Chapter 3

Title page illus. Osteoarchaeologist, Dr Shirley Curtis-Summers, analysing the skeleton of Burial 5

27. Location of key early medieval activity in Lincoln

28. Location of early medieval features beneath the Eastern Courtyard showing their function

29. Conjectured ground plan of a late 10th-century house found beneath the North Lawn

30. A: Photograph of clay-lined hearth set into the earth floor of a late 10th-century house under the North Lawn; B: Archaeologists recording the remains of a late 10th-century house

31. A: early medieval spouted bowl; B: bone skate fragment; C: fragments of antler offcuts from craftworking; D: whetstone

32. Grave cover from St Mark’s Church in the Upper Wigford suburb showing the ridge and tiles of a roof in its ornamental design

33. Photograph of Burial 9, the skeleton of a woman that lay beneath the stone foundation of the church or chapel

34. Conjectured ground plan of the church or chapel, Structure 7

35. Photograph of Burial 1, the skeleton of a young male migrant to Lincoln, whose bones were incorporated with great care into the foundation of the church or chapel

36. A: Remains of fine linen net-like tabby on mortar-like material from Burial 1; B: Remains of fine linen tabby on mortar-like material from Burial 1

37. Photograph of Burial 11, the skeleton of a young child buried before the second church wall was built

38. Plan of burials within church or chapel Structure 7

39. Photograph of Burial 3, the skeleton of a woman buried in the church or chapel

40. Photograph of Burial 2, the skeleton of a child aged 10 to 14 years buried over Burial 3 in the church or chapel

41. Photograph of Burial 6, the skeleton of a man buried within a wooden coffin packed on the outside with limestone blocks

42. Photograph of Burial 4, the skeleton of a man buried in a shroud and wooden coffin packed with limestone blocks

43. A: Osteoarchaeologist, Dr Shirley Curtis Summers, studying the skull of Burial 4; B: Dr Caroline Erolin, University of Dundee, during the process of facial reconstruction; C: the face of Burial 4 reproduced as a 3-D model

44. The sarcophagus burial, Burial 5, before removal of the lid

45. Drawing of the north section of the Masons’ Yard trench showing the position of Burial 5 as it lay beneath substantial Norman landscaping layers

46. Burial 5 as it lay within the sarcophagus

47. Lower leg bone (right fibula) of Burial 5 showing the bowing characteristic of rickets suffered in childhood

48. A: shoes and feet bones of Burial 5 as found in the sarcophagus; B: animal-hair stitching emerging from the stitch holes in the shoes; C: Reconstruction of the Oslo-type shoes

49. Mineral-preserved imprints on mortar from the groin area of Burial 5

50. Drawing of the limestone sarcophagus and lid showing the keeled form imitating a roof

51. A: The limestone sarcophagi of Graves 11 and 13 at the West Front, Lincoln Cathedral; B: Sarcophagi following the removal of lids showing the head niche within Grave 13

Chapter 4

Title page illus. View from the east at dusk of the 12th-century

Lucy Tower atop its Norman motte

52. LIDAR map of Lincoln showing castle bailey and inner bailey at or soon after the Conquest

53. Phased plan of Lincoln Castle

54. Plan of the earliest phase of the castle

55. The south curtain wall west of the Lucy Tower showing the blocking of the lost South Gate within the west wing wall

56. View of the Lucy Tower from the south-west by S H Grimm, dated 1784

57. A: The Pike mark; B: Copy of pike mark; C: Location of pike stone

58. The north doorway of the Lucy Tower

59. Blocked large sockets on the interior of the Lucy Tower

60. Reconstruction of the south castle enclosure at its full development during Phase 4

61. Reconstructed section drawing of the Lucy Tower interior ranges and roofs

62. William Lumby’s drawing of the lost chambers

63. E J Willson’s plan of the East Chamber, dated 1832

64. Plan of the Lucy Tower showing excavated areas and the lost chambers

65. View looking down into the flue contained in the north wall of the Lucy Tower East Chamber

66. East Chamber – the north wall (north side)

67. A: Door opening and stairs that led down to the ground floor of the East Chamber of the Lucy Tower; B: Decorative column base detail on doorway

68. The West Chamber – the north wall

69. The West Chamber – the south passage wall

70. Intervention 10, an evaluation trench excavated down the Lucy Tower motte slope showing remains of West Chamber foundation

Chapter 5

Title page illus. View of East Gate, a late 11th-century Norman gatehouse, re-fronted with bartizan towers (and a now-lost barbican) in the 13th century under Henry III

71. Early phases in the development of construction in stone of the castle walls and gates

72. Phased plan of West Gate, barbican, barbican tower and West Range, including structures found during excavation

73. The late 11th-century West Gate with the 13th-century barbican tower set to the north

74. Stone-by-stone drawing of the front elevation of West Gate showing original Norman fabric and modern repair

75. View of Lincoln Castle from the north-west by S H Grimm, dated 1784

76. View of West Gate by S H Grimm, dated 1784

77. Drawing of a section through West Gate showing the details of the gate passage, barbican and barbican tower

78. Phased plan of East Gate and barbican including East Range structures found during excavation

79. Late 18th-century drawing of East Gate and barbican by Jean Claude Nattes

80. The Fitzwilliam Gate at Dover Castle showing the towers of the barbican and the beaked projection in between

81. View of the south wall of East Gate showing the relationship between the Norman fabric and the 13th-century bartizan tower

82. The north side of the gate passage, East Gate, the chamfered course can be seen above the bottom four courses of stone; the eastern end, where it should return to the exterior of the gate, has been trimmed back to the wall face

83. The north side of the gate passage, West Gate, the chamfered course is above the bottom course of stone in the gate passage and, like the East Gate, has been trimmed back on the exterior of the gate

84. Plan and section of East Gate copied by E J Willson from Gough’s version of Camden’s Britannia , published in 1789

85. View of blocked bartizan doorway over East Gate

86. The inner bailey showing the results of the geophysical (resistivity) survey of the North Lawn area; the rectilinear ‘ghost’ of the Great Hall is highlighted

87. Photograph of the south wall foundation of the Great Hall found beneath the North Lawn

88. View of Christchurch Castle hall range looking north-east; the ‘high’ end of the hall where the dais was located is at the far end of the range

89. Drawing by E J Willson showing timber slots for fixing timber hourdes to the battlement

90. Drawing showing the pattern of putlog or scaffold holes on the interior of the north curtain wall

91. Drawing showing the interior of the west curtain wall around the West Gate wall

Chapter 6

Title page illus. View of the Observatory Tower on its motte, first built for Earl Ranulf, later converted as a gaol during the reign of Henry II, and heavily rebuilt in the 1820s for Governor John Merryweather

92. A: Plan of East Range from excavation and observations; B: East Range walls and spiral staircase

93. Reconstructed view of East Gate, East Range and the Observatory Tower gaol and motte in the late 12th century

94. The surviving window in the east curtain wall, now restored

95. Plan of the Observatory Tower showing wall thickness of Ranulf ’s tower exposed during excavation in 1974

96. Stonework encasing the Observatory Tower motte as glimpsed in the base (right), beneath the floor of a Georgian privy (left)

97. A: Plan of Structures 9 and 10 with their limestone courtyard including the position of the Observatory Tower motte ditch; B: Photograph of Structures 9 and 10 during excavation

98. Iron horseshoe of the 12th century recovered from the spread midden heap

99. Gilt-bronze harness decoration in the shape of a scallop shell, perhaps associated with St James

100. Ground-floor plan of the Observatory Tower as recorded by E J Willson before his restoration work

101. The east elevation of the Observatory Tower, recorded by E J Willson in 1840 before restoration work began

102. The tower of Lydford Castle, Devon

103. A: Ground-floor plan of the Observatory Tower when used as a gaol; B: East–west section of the Observatory Tower showing the division for two cells on the north side

104. Buildings accounts from 1540–41 for repairs to the gaol in Lincoln Castle ordered by Henry VIII

105. The 12th-century midden layer before excavation

106. Small dice made of slate, tooth ivory, bone and antler recovered from the feasting middens

107. Bone flute made from a goose ulna

108. Two beautiful bone headdress pins from the feasting midden

109. Roman seal box perhaps reused as a personal reliquary in the 12th century

110. A: Relative proportions of cattle, sheep, pig, wild mammals (deer, rabbit and hare) and bird species from the Lincoln Castle midden; B: Species represented from contemporary sites in the city

Chapter 7

Title page illus. View of the 13th-century vaulting within Cobb Hall, the sophistication of the architecture reflects the Royal patronage

111. The effigy of King John from his tomb in Worcester Cathedral

112. The Lincoln 1215 copy of Magna Carta on display in the Magna Carta Vault

113. Effigy of Nicholaa de la Haye from her tomb in St Michael’s Church, Swaton, Lincolnshire

114. LIDAR image of Lincoln showing the movements of the forces through the castle and city

115. Additions to the castle in Phase 8, c . 1223 to c . 1272

116. View of Cobb Hall from the north-east

117. A: Location of graffiti in Cobb Hall; B: Location of graffiti on the walls

118. Graffito of a cross with stepped Calvary base

119. Graffito of St Christopher holding his staff and carrying the child Jesus on his right shoulder

120. Graffito of a stag pierced by an arrow in basement of the Cobb Hall tower. The iron ring fixed to this stone probably held chains connected to a wooden chest

121. Graffito of a horse

122. Graffito of a man wearing a tunic

123. A: Heraldic shield, ground floor of the Cobb Hall tower; B: Shield of John de Mortimer, redrawn from examples in the Stirling Roll of 1297 and the Galloway Roll of c . 1300

124. Statue of a lion and a crowned king seated on a throne as recorded by E J Willson

125. Millstone reused as drain capping outside the door of stable block Structure 8

126. A Civil War mortar at Goodrich Castle of the sort which would have been used at Lincoln Castle during hostilities

127. Archaeologist, Justin Garner-Lahire, holding the large limestone shot

Chapter 8

Title page illus. View of the front range of the Georgian gaol built by 1788 to the design of William Lumby

128. Plan of Lincoln Castle from a drawing by Edward Johnson, dated 1782

129. Copy of plan of Lincoln Castle by the Duchy of Lancaster, dated 1783

130. The second New County Hall or Assize Court built in 1822–8 to designs by Robert Smirke, replacing an earlier building that stood further to the east

131. A survey of the Castle by Jonathan Teal showing the plan of the gaol with north–south ranges and yards behind dated 1812

132. Plan of Lincoln Castle, E J Willson, dated 1832 showing location of the new 1820s Debtors’ Yard

133. Plan of Lincoln Castle by E J Willson with later amendments

134. Plan of the prison building by William Upton, dated 1812

135. A: An ornate fireplace in the gaoler’s lodgings; B: A simple, functional fireplace in the male debtors’ lodgings on the second floor of the gaol

136. The Georgian male felons’ yard showing the wall foundations, water cistern and York stone paving

137. A: View of Structure 12 during excavation showing double privy plan; B: Section of layers of ash and waste in the double midden privy within the airing court; C: stone privy seat from the gaol with graffiti etched by prisoners John Smith and John Stones[?]

138. A: The ‘transportation stone’; B: Sketch of the yard by E J Willson showing the tiles on the rear of the gaol

139. The former prison yard and drainage system under excavation

140. A: A glass punch cup; B: A glass perfume bottle

141. A: The Pearlware footbath of the 1830/40s made by a Welsh company; B: Chinese porcelain decorated with a Neolithic jade ‘cong’ and a Bronze Age bronze ‘jue’ tripod vessel; the underside bears a Qing Dynasty stamp

142. A: The Georgian gaol and layout of the castle bailey c . 1787 to c . 1845; B: The Crown Wing development c . 1847

143. A: A reconstructed cell showing the provision for each prisoner; B: The box pews within the prison chapel

144. A: Reconstructed toilets recovered from a Georgian soakaway beneath the Heritage Skills Centre; B: Design drawing by Joshua Jebb showing the arrangement of toilet, sink and water supply; C: copper basin recovered from soil dumped across the 1820s Debtors’ Yard

145. Section drawing of the Victorian prison showing the heating and ventilation system design, by William Adams Nicholson, dated 1845

146. Overhead view of 1840s features of the Eastern Courtyard including the foundations of the radial walls and the egg-shaped brick drains

147. View into egg-shaped drain found below the Eastern Courtyard

148. A: Simple home-made gravestone found under the Eastern Courtyard; B: Simple grave markers of felons and debtors inside the Lucy Tower

149. A: Drawing of the sundial found reused in the late 18th-century felons’ privy; B: a comparable 18th-century cube sundial on an ornate pedestal at Houghton Hall, Norfolk

150. A: The arbour as rediscovered; B: The arbour as restored

151. Illustration of the County Hall showing a peacock in front, published by John Saunders in 1837

152. Merryweather’s mock Gothic bath house building; the left-hand bay is the earliest element and enclosed an iron water tank in stone; the central and right-hand bays were fitted out to house the plunge pool and changing room

153. Portrait of E J Willson

154. E J Willson’s drawing, showing the ‘ideal restoration’ of East Gate, with crenellations and statuary, dated 1840; this ‘restoration’ was not carried out

155. World War I and II graffiti in prison

Chapter 9

Title page illus. HRH The Princess Royal and Lincoln Castle Revealed Head Mason, Heath Shakespeare during the official opening of Lincoln Castle, 8th June 2015

156. LIDAR image of Lincoln showing postulated layout of landholding and activity in the Upper City in the early 11th century following David Stocker

157. School children celebrating the reopening of Lincoln Castle, 8th June 2015

Digest of evidence

2.1. Location of modern interventions at Lincoln Castle

3.1. Roman pottery from the Eastern Courtyard

3.2. Roman pottery from the Masons’ Yard

4.1. Roman finds from the Eastern Courtyard and Masons’ Yard

5.1. Roman glass

7.1. Roman shale spindle whorl, Find no. 29/1

8.1. Post-Roman pottery from the Eastern Courtyard

8.2. Post-Roman pottery from the Eastern Courtyard

9.1. A: Poirer’s Facet; B: Allen’s Fossa; C: Lateral tibial squatting facets

9.2. Left carpal bones with OA changes on Burial 3

9.3. OA on right first metatarsal sesamoid articulation of Burial 4

9.4. OA on left first carpo metacarpal joint of Burial 6 showing eburnation

9.5. OA ankylosis of the right 2nd distal interphalangeal joint of Burial 6

9.6. OA on C3–C4 left articular facets of Burial 6 showing eburnation and porosity

9.7. SNs and OP on L3–L4 of Burial 9

9.8. Schmorl’s node on the upper body of a fifth lumbar vertebra from the disarticulated material

9.9. Healed rickets on Burial 5, showing bowing of the right fibula

9.10. PNB and thickened medullary cavity on the left fibula of Burial 5

9.11. Sacralisation of L6 on Burial 1

9.12. Blade wound to the right tibia of Burial 8

9.13. Sharp-force trauma cut to a disarticulated adult right upper femur

9.14. Spondylolysis of L6 on Burial 4

9.15. Myostitis ossificans traumatica on left tibia of Burial 4

9.16. Os trigonum trauma to the left talus on Burial 3

9.17. Dental calculus on Burial 4

9.18. Dental caries and imbrication on Burial 4

9.19. Dental abscess on Burial 6

9.20. Periodontal disease on Burial 9

9.21. Horizontal root fracture on Burial 3

10.1. 87Sr/ ⁸⁶ Sr and δ ¹⁸ O values for Lincoln Castle enamel samples plotted alongside comparative data from Hereford and Normandy

10.2. δ ¹³ C carb and δ ¹⁸ O values from Lincoln Castle tooth enamel plotted alongside comparative data from Hereford and Normandy

10.3. δ ¹³ C and δ ¹⁵ N values from bone collagen for humans, herbivores and cod

10.4. δ ¹³ C values for bone collagen with those from enamel carbonate

10.5. δ ³⁴ S and δ ¹⁵ N values for humans, herbivores and cod

11.1. Plot of δ ¹⁸ O carb and ⁸⁷ Sr/ ⁸⁶ Sr values from the tooth enamel of the burials from the Masons’ Yard

11.2. Plot of δ ¹³ C and δ ¹⁵ N values for the samples from the Masons’ Yard

11.3. Plots of δ ¹³ C, δ ¹⁵ N, and δ ³⁴ S values for the samples from the Masons’ Yard as compared to the mean values for the ‘Terrestrial’ and ‘Marine’ endmembers

11.4. Chronological model for the Masons’ Yard burials

11.5. Overall time span of the burials dated from the Masons’ Yard, as derived from the modelling in Illus. 11.4

12.1. Mineral-preserved imprints, Find no. 26/396, on mortar from the groin area of the interment in the sarcophagus, F18

12.2. The tufts of fibre emerging from the stitch holes in fragment 11

12.3. Remains of fine linen tabby, Find no. 26/393(i), on mortar-like material from Burial 1

12.4. Remains of fine linen net-like tabby, Find no. 26/393(ii), on mortar-like material from Burial 1

13.1. Pre-Conquest finds from the Eastern Courtyard

13.2. Medieval finds from the Eastern Courtyard – Dress accessories and toilet item

13.3. Medieval finds from the Eastern Courtyard – Recreational items

13.4. Medieval finds from the Eastern Courtyard – Household items

13.5. Medieval finds from the Eastern Courtyard – Horse equipment

List of tables

1. Summary of castle development identified through aboveground recording and below-ground excavation

2. Summary of burials from beneath the Masons’ Yard

3. List of animals present in the 12th-century midden deposits

Digest of evidence

8.1. Middle Saxon pottery from archaeological interventions at the castle

8.2. Late Saxon pottery from archaeological interventions at the castle

9.1. Summary of osteoarchaeological results on articulated skeletons from beneath the Masons’ Yard

10.1. Sample information for humans and animals analysed for isotopic composition

10.2. Strontium, oxygen and carbon isotope results for tooth enamel samples from the Masons’ Yard burials

10.3. Data from bone collagen isotope analysis

11.1. Radiocarbon and stable isotope results from bone collagen used for dietary reconstruction and Marine Reservoir Effect (MRE) correction from the Masons’ Yard

11.2. Stable isotope results (δ ¹³ C, δ ¹⁵ N, and δ ³⁴ S) from bone collagen on terrestrial and marine animals used to produce baseline values for dietary reconstruction and Marine Reservoir Effect (MRE) correction from the Masons’ Yard

11.3. Oxygen (δ ¹⁸ O) and strontium ( ⁸⁷ Sr/ ⁸⁶ Sr) isotope results from tooth enamel of burials recovered from the Masons’ Yard

11.4. Modelled radiocarbon results for burials from the Masons’ Yard using the Marine diet percentage calculated in FRUITS to correct for the Marine Reservoir Effect (MRE)

Foreword

I have known Lincoln Castle since 1946 when, as a small boy, my parents brought me from my home in Grimsby to see the castle and cathedral. I have loved them both ever since but although I have been a regular visitor throughout these 75 years, visiting the castle in the fifties and sixties and beyond became a less exciting experience as I saw how dilapidated it became.

When I stood down from the House of Commons in 2010 and went to the House of Lords we decided to move to Lincoln and within a year I was chairman of the Historic Lincoln Trust and therefore much involved with the plans to transform the castle, with the aid of a most generous grant from the National Heritage Lottery Fund and other contributions from the European Union and the County and generous private trusts and foundations.

The Historic Lincoln Trust took on the task of raising money for what is now the David PJ Ross Magna Carta Vault in which Lincoln’s copy of that most historic of documents is beautifully displayed. During the memorable summer of 2017 it was joined by Domesday Book, the only time that has ever been on public view in the provinces since 1086.

It was fascinating watching the crucially important archaeological investigations that took place over those years leading to the grand re-opening of the Castle in 2015, Magna Carta year. I was particularly excited by the discovery of the late Anglo-Saxon chapel with its stone sarcophagus. Now the story of that find and of the many other investigations and discoveries is revealed in this fascinating volume. It is one that will not only give endless pleasure to those who read it but will help re-establish the Castle as one of the most important post-Conquest buildings in the land and one that has played a very significant part in our nation’s story, not least in the nineteen long winters of the turbulent reign of King Stephen, who was captured at the first Battle of Lincoln in 1141; in the dramatic history-changing Battle of Lincoln in 1217; and in the turmoil of the first English Civil War in the mid-17th century.

This book will be a lasting reminder of some of the most exciting archaeology Lincoln has seen and I commend it most warmly.

Patrick, Lord Cormack Chairman,

Historic Lincoln Trust

The months, weeks and days leading up to the opening of Lincoln Castle Revealed were a mixture of excitement, stress, anxiety and pride in the finished article. The quality and number of finds exceeded all our expectations to such an extent that we had to make extra room to display them all! Those finds gave me a real sense of what life would have been like in Roman and Anglo-Saxon times as well as the massive impact of successive kings; Henry I and his father William the Conqueror, King John and Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest, now uniquely displayed together for the first time. It made me feel like I was part of the story, immersed in the colourful history of one of the finest castles in England. Visitors to the Castle, when they traverse the medieval wall walk, and see the magnificent David P J Ross Magna Carta Vault and the immersive ‘in the round’ cinema, will also feel they are part of that story, including the Georgian gaol and Victorian prison and indeed be part of the story as it continues to evolve.

The revealed artefacts tell their own fascinating story, none of which could have been achieved in this £22 million project without the financial help of Lincolnshire County Council, the National Lottery Heritage Fund, European Regional Development Fund, the David Ross Foundation and the expertise of specialist contractors, staff and volunteers. I still vividly remember the day when we opened the castle doors for the first time, the excitement and anticipation. This book does that all over again and all the outstanding efforts of all those mentioned above can now be revealed in this magnificent book. Enjoy!

Cllr Nick Worth Executive Member for Culture & Heritage,

Lincolnshire County Council

Preface

Once a great castle is built it becomes part of the landscape: like a hill it attracts the eye and is hard to move; but like a patch of woodland it can also be trimmed and felled. What did such a landmark mean to the townsfolk of the medieval period, to the combatants of the Civil War, the industrial county and city, and in our own time?

Presented in the pages and pictures that follow is the story of one of England’s finest castles, newly investigated in a state-of-the-art campaign that combined documentary, architectural, archaeological and other scientific discoveries. The investigation of the castle fabric and the ground it stands on was conducted by some of the nations’ leading archaeological experts; but here they join forces, as though in shirt sleeves, to give a vivid plain-language commentary that takes visitor and reader from deep strata to towering battlement through ten centuries of history.

The story of the castle starts before there was a castle, when the Roman fortress of Lindum Colonia – still standing in the 10th century – was being refurbished to host the new urban community of Late Anglo Saxon Lincoln, its church and cemetery, including the rare find of a sealed Anglo-Saxon stone sarcophagus whose occupant was examined with forensic thoroughness. The lives of these early English citizens were disrupted by the construction of the Norman castle, which stood on the prime topographic site at the highest point. Its construction in stone began at the newly established early date of around 1080, with the raising of the main gates and walls and the elusive Great Hall. Major developments followed, all also newly defined and analysed here: the Lucy Tower created by hereditary castellans, their office descending from the Late Anglo-Saxon constable, the Royal Cobb Hall tower, the Observatory Tower with its long biography hosting Earl Ranulf, a county prison and finally an observatory. The castle on its hill was a beacon around which the crown, the church and the civic authorities competed for space and influence over a thousand years.

Now for the first time, through the Lincoln Castle Revealed project, the castle is given back to the people. It is a central reception where the citizens can regale visitors from far and wide with the high moments of their particular history. The citizens also made the visitor centre that this book celebrates and promotes. The archaeological team worked hand-in-hand with an embedded volunteer cadre which included nearly 100 practical volunteers, hundreds of school pupils and thousands of visitors to the excavation. Their new on-site museum tells the story and displays the finds. The authors are to be congratulated for thus addressing the international academic community, connoisseurs of Medieval European heritage, the people of the City of Lincoln and their visitors – for all of whom they revalued this monument and prepared this book.

Martin Carver,

University of York

The book that comes out of the Lincoln Castle Revealed project, is a substantial investment by the National Lottery Heritage Fund and Lincolnshire County Council, and was also supported by the European Regional Development Fund and the David Ross Foundation. The significance of the castle is here revealed, it is more visible, more accessible and better understood. One can again walk the castle walls, which stand above the Roman and Medieval city as a secular counterpoint to the Cathedral. Alongside the conservation of historic structures, much-needed new access and visitor facilities have been designed in a careful balance between the public benefits of change and the interventions required to bring them about. This volume achieves a coherent re-understanding of Lincoln Castle thanks to a programme of archaeological conservation grounded in clear and challenging research questions. Monuments of national importance are protected and conserved for the benefit of the entire community, sensitive change, supported by expertise, scholarship and craft skill is essential to delivering that public good. For funding this nationally-important monument and making it accessible to the people of Lincoln and the world, that entire community deserves our thanks. The work of Lincolnshire County Council in conserving Lincoln Castle continues at time of writing with new support from UK Government via Historic England focussing on its earthworks.

Tim Allen,

Historic England

Acknowledgements

Academic advisors

This book owes a great deal to peer review provided by Dr Mick Jones and Antony Lee (Chs 1 to 3), Professors Martin Carver and David Stocker, and Susan Payne (Chs 1 to 9), and Dr Helen Bates (Ch. 8). Susan Payne, Dr Helen Bates and Lorraine Hayes undertook detailed research into the later history of the gaol and prison for the interpretation scheme for Lincoln Castle Revealed and this book benefits from their generosity in sharing information. Dr Alan Kissane also generously provided information from his documentary research into the later medieval history of the castle.

The archaeology team

The fieldwork team between 2008 and 2014 included: Justin Garner-Lahire, Cecily Spall, Richard Jackson, Dr Nicky Toop, Genevieve Carver, Matt Wells and Doug Young. Justin Garner-Lahire and Dr Jonathan Clark oversaw the recording of the medieval fabric assisted by Richard Jackson, Rebecca Lane and Dr Michael Shapland.

Jane Young oversaw the post-excavation processing of assemblages recovered from the Masons’ Yard and the Eastern Courtyard, providing important and immediate spot-dating of ceramic assemblages and contexts, a process which proved critical to understanding the complex archaeological deposits and sequences as they were excavated.

Grateful thanks are owed to Dr Ben Robinson, Dr Helen Woodhouse and Tim Allen of Historic England who guided the archaeological campaign.

FAS Heritage would like to extend warmest thanks to the numerous volunteers who assisted with the excavation of the Eastern Courtyard, both on site and in the finds room. Though too numerous to name individually, we hope their enjoyment of the archaeology matches our gratitude for their contribution.

A great debt is owed to