Handbook of Reading Theological German

By Christopher Ryan Jones and Katharina Hirt

The Handbook of Reading Theological German is the premier resource for equipping those interested in reading and translating original German source materials and preparing academics for German comprehension examination. The book is ideal for students in biblical studies, church history, Jewish studies, and theology. 

Coauthored by Katharina Hirt, a native German speaker and professional linguist, and Christopher Ryan Jones, a native English speaker and doctoral candidate in biblical studies, this collaboration draws on the latest developments in linguistics to present a cutting-edge teaching methodology for graduate students learning to read German for research.

Attuned to the specific needs of English speakers learning German, this handbook is well suited for independent study or for use in the classroom. Providing abundant exercises and readings, Jones and Hirt’s work provides an excellent entry point for students required to learn theological German.

The Handbook of Reading Theological German provides:

• An introduction to German grammar
• A demonstration of the role that German theology has had in the development of modern Jewish and Christian practices.
• Guided readings and biographies of six major German theologians and philosophers
• Further, advanced readings with minimal guidance from contemporary authors in the areas of Hebrew Bible, New Testament, Jewish studies, church history, and theology, so that students can focus on literature from their chosen field of study

• Language: English
• Publisher: Zondervan
• Release date: Jun 1, 2021
• ISBN: 9780310119395

Christopher Ryan Jones

Christopher Ryan Jones (ThM, Liberty University; PsyD, California Southern University) is a PhD candidate at Johannes Gutenberg Universität—Mainz, in the area of Hebrew Bible and Biblical Archaeology.

Book preview

Acknowledgments

With heartfelt gratitude we acknowledge Prof. Dr. Ulrich Volp, who not only established the yearly International Summer School of German (and) Theology and provided the foreword for this volume, but encouraged and supported its production.

This project would not have been possible without Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Zwickel, who went above and beyond to provide assistance, advice, help, and encouragement every step of the way. Words cannot convey how humbly thankful we are.

Special thanks goes to Ms. Alicia Ward who had the special honor of reading over this manuscript multiple times as we prepared it for publication.

To each of the publishers and authors who agreed to allow their text to be included in this work, we appreciate your contribution and willingness to be a part of these efforts.

Additionally, this manuscript would not be what it is without the generous help of Beate Karst, Rafaela de Abreu Mathias, and Anna Mulcahy. We are grateful for your efforts and assistance. This project would not have been completed on time without your help. Thank you!

Finally, we are thankful for the PhD and graduate students from all over the globe who worked through some of these chapters and provided feedback. Your efforts have helped develop a tool which will undoubtedly assist other students who will not be limited as you were by a lack of resources.

Foreword

By Prof. Dr. Ulrich Volp

The book which you have in front of you is not the result of a solitary scholarly research project like many other academic publications today, but emerged more or less directly from the classroom at my university. It is a university that was founded in 1477 when Mainz was a seat of the Holy Inquisition, and one of the political centers of Germany, ruled by an archbishop who was one of the constitutional electors of the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Martin Luther started his theological career as one of his subjects, and it was not long before our university’s theologians were officially asked to write their first Gutachten, a carefully written opinion, about Luther’s teachings.

Our city also witnessed the invention of the printing press by its most famous son, Johannes Gutenberg, in the fifteenth century, and the subsequent media revolution which enabled the fast exchange of scholarly ideas and teaching, which we have since become so accustomed to. German-speaking theologians and their writings have since been studied worldwide and still have an impact on academic theological work in other countries. The rich and varied academic landscape in the Germany of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries with dozens of well-funded theological departments and many outstanding professorial minds produced a myriad of scholarly works in biblical, patristic and liturgical studies, church history, dogmatics, ethics, and many other fields—many of which are still worth consulting and provide for fruitful reading.

Today, well over one hundred German, Austrian, and Swiss universities offer courses in Christian theology taught in German. They also provide a research environment which makes this a flourishing part of scholarly production in these countries. One might not agree with the theological positions of Luther, Schleiermacher, Barth, Bonhoeffer, or Rahner, but my experiences of studying their ideas together with international students have been and continue to be some of the most rewarding of my own academic career. I feel privileged, because after more than half a millenium of theological studies at Mainz, I was given the resources to start the project of a theological summer school coupled with a German language course, which made many of these experiences possible.

The participants of the school came from practically all over the world: from the United States, Canada, Mexico, Peru, England, Scotland, Australia, Egypt, Ethiopia, Nigeria, South Africa, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands, Russia, China, India, Indonesia, and South Korea. They spoke many different languages (up to eleven in one case) and brought with them very diverse learning experiences. For the Germans on the team, this made the course linguistically as interesting for them as for anybody else—indeed we sometimes felt we were learning and appreciating our own language all over again.

At the same time, we found that there was a surprising lack of helpful material on the subject and what was available felt not ideally suitable for the purpose: to enable students with some existing background in theology to efficiently and painlessly decode written German theological texts from different periods, and at the same time improve their linguistic skills. This book is designed to fill the gap and I wish for it to be useful for many who are not able to participate in the Mainz summer school. I have known both authors for some time now and I am confident that the expectations which we all have for this project will not be disappointed.

Having been at the receiving end of language instruction in more than half a dozen languages myself—some of it more, some less successful—I know that learning a foreign language can be frustrating at times, but I also know that the rewards far outweigh any sacrifices one may have to make. I sincerely hope that this book will enable you to reap these rewards much sooner than would have otherwise been possible.

Ulrich Volp

Mainz, May 2020

Introducing the Handbook of Reading Theological German

The rigorous academic work completed by students within the fields of biblical, Judaic, and theological studies comprises a diverse and robust curriculum—just ask any student. The journey from bachelor’s to doctorate includes not only classes on biblical texts and theological categories, but, depending on the student’s concentration, the program can also include courses on biblical archaeology, church history, cultural backgrounds, exegesis, hermeneutics, ministry, Talmud, textual criticism, and of course, in most universities, students must acquire certain language skills—primarily in Hebrew and Greek. In fact, these language skills are so essential that most students must complete a comprehensive examination in both areas before completing their doctorate.

In most countries, students are often required to demonstrate proficiency in a secondary research language, typically French, German, or Latin. For many students, German is an obvious choice, due to the vast amount of academic literature produced in German and, of course, the influential role German theologians have had for over five hundred years. Yet, when observing the development within any language over a period of five hundred years, noticeable changes can be seen between the older texts and the modern texts. This can be observed in any language. After all, no one goes around speaking the English used in the King James Bible; nor do modern Israelis speak Biblical Hebrew.

Students who observe this phenomenon when trying to work with the original German sources notice that it is extremely difficult to translate the texts. Not to mention, the German used in theological texts is very specific and not used, discussed, or mentioned in basic grammars or German dictionaries. This can make the student feel overwhelmed. Unfortunately, there is a lack of relevant and useful material that can be used in the development of courses in theological German, as the last notable text on this subject was originally published in 1986 by Helmut W. Ziefle.¹ This scarcity of materials can discourage many students from pursuing this specific focus.

Recognizing the necessity of theological German in the academic work of emerging biblical scholars and realizing the void in up-to-date resources, Prof. Dr. Ulrich Volp began an international summer school program, German and Theology, at the University of Mainz in 2015. The purpose of the program was to provide visiting scholars with hands-on experience in both German theology and theological German. Professor Volp utilized the Protestant Theological Faculty of the University to lecture on areas relevant to German theology and enlisted Mrs. Christina Ersch to develop the linguistic part of the program.

Over the past five years, Christina and her colleague Katharina Hirt have worked each year to further develop the program in a way that meets the needs of international students and provides an exciting and challenging classroom experience. However, not everyone who would benefit from such a program is able to travel to Germany for three weeks. And while the program does a fantastic job of teaching both German theology and theological German, it does not fill the void in contemporary publications. It is with this need in mind, and with the inspiration of the summer school, that this book was conceived.

The purpose of this text is to fill the gap in modern scholarship and to offer a beneficial tool for understanding theological German. Due to her experience teaching at and helping to develop the international summer school program each year, and because of its unique and innovative methodology, I asked Katharina Hirt to write the grammar portions of this text. I will focus on aspects of German theology, pointing out the importance of not only the texts presented in this volume but also the importance of each respective author. It is our hope that this book will not only be helpful to those learning theological German on their own, but that it will also inspire the development of theological German courses.

The material presented in this volume is unique in that it focuses on reading and translating, as opposed to communication skills, which is typical in most contemporary German grammars. In addition, while we have tried to provide a very thorough foundation for German grammar, we only present materials that are relevant to theological German. This way, the student is not overwhelmed by unnecessary material that is not applicable to their studies.

The book is divided into three parts. In the first part, you will become familiar with German theology, its development, and the influential role it plays in contemporary and modern theology. You will also be introduced to the Mainz Method of reading and translating texts, using authentic examples from Martin Luther’s Von der Freiheit eines Christenmenschen. Chapters 2–4 of this book are structured according to the ten steps of the Mainz Method and include:

1. Find all the verb forms.

2. Find all commas.

3. Find all conjunctions.

4. Mark the main clause.

5. Identify case and number of all nouns; establish noun phrases.

6. Locate all referent nouns.

7. Look out for participles used as adjectives.

8. Look up all new words and try combining the verb with phrases.

9. Perform a rough translation of the sentence.

10. Polish up the sentence to ensure readability.

In part two of this book, you will be able to apply the skills you learned in part one. In each chapter you will be introduced to one of the great minds that have been instrumental in the development of German theological thought. In each case, you will be given a short biography of each historical figure that explains the significant role they have played. We will also help you to recognize the uniqueness of each of their writing styles. You will then be presented with one of their well-known texts, which we will then help you translate.

Part three of this book is more advanced. It is divided up into areas of discipline. You will find texts related to the Hebrew Bible and biblical archaeology, New Testament studies, Judaic studies, church history, and theology. Two texts within each of these concentrations will be provided. The purpose of this section is to introduce you to a greater number of modern scholars² and to advance your reading and translation skills by offering less assistance than was provided in previous chapters. The texts were selected based on a number of factors, including the author’s significance in the field and the general reception of their work within their area of study, to name a few. While on first glimpse it may appear to be heavily biased toward male authors, that is not our intent. In Germany, the concept of a woman having a career in academia is still relatively new and mostly emerged in the 1970s. Still, we made great efforts to include a broader range of authors and were only hindered by copyright issues.

Finally, in the appendix you will find a number of resources that we feel will be helpful to you. Included you will find an explanation of basic grammar terms, which has been designed for those who have not had a solid foundation of grammatical concepts in the past. There are lists of irregular verbs and verbs with prepositions, which may be helpful to you. You will also find a glossary of terms; while it is not exhaustive, we do hope that it will be helpful, since many of the terms used in theological German are absent from most German-English dictionaries. The appendix also contains solutions to the exercises in the book and most importantly, you will find a copy of the Mainz Method Checklist. We recommend that you photocopy this checklist so that you can keep it beside you whenever you are doing translation work.

Additionally, I would like to say a few words about translations. One of the reasons why interacting with original texts is so important is that translations rely on the interpretation of the translator. You can give multiple people the same text and they will all come up with a different translation. This is often observed by the teachers of the Summer School. In the appendix you will also notice that there are translations of the texts presented in Parts II and III of this book. We felt it beneficial to offer these so that you could check your own translations. In order to provide translations that could be similar to your own, we have created these translations with heavy reliance on the footnotes within the chapter that you will be using to create your translation. Intentionally, these translations are not well polished, since with several of the texts, published English translations are already available. Instead, these translations are solely as a reference for checking your progress.

So, whether you’re proficient in German or studying the language for the first time, it is my hope that this book will excite and encourage you to interact more frequently with German texts on a scholarly level. To be able to work with a text in its original language is a great gift and allows for much deeper and more meaningful interaction with the source. It is my hope that, in some small way, this book will help you produce the best scholarship possible.

Christopher Ryan Jones

Mainz, May 2020

Notes

1. Ziefle published Theological German: A Reader in 1986 and Dictionary of Modern Theological German in 1992. Both volumes were later combined and published as Modern Theological German: A Reader and Dictionary (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1997).

2. With the exceptions of Frankel and Geiger. The two texts are presented based on the significance of their authors on Modern Judaism and the lack of English translations available for their writings.

PART I

Introduction to German Theology and Grammar

Overview

As you begin your journey into German theology and the grammar of the German language, you will receive an overview of the development of theology within Germany and its global influence over approximately a thousand years. Over the next four chapters, you will be given the tools necessary to appreciate original German sources and incorporate them into your research. Within chapters 2–4, you will develop a firm foundation of German grammar that is centered on the Mainz Method, presented in a ten-step checklist. Exercises will be provided for each step to reinforce the materials presented, enabling you to excel in parts II and III of this book.

Learning Objective

• Learners will discover the development and influence of German theology.

• Learners will only be introduced to essential grammatical concepts for reading and translating theological German texts.

• Learners will become familiar with the Mainz Method Checklist.

• Learners will begin to apply the Mainz Method Checklist to authentic materials.

1

Introduction to German Theology

Normally when the concept of theology is considered, the mind equates it with the theological perspectives held by members of particular religious communities, whereby it is possible to compare and contrast the theological ideologies of one particular faith group to those held by a different religious tradition. That is to say, it is possible to analyze the differences between sects within a religion, such as comparing Protestant and Catholic theology, or examining the theological differences between two different religions, such as Judaism and Christianity. In each of these instances, theology is always thought of in terms of its association with religion.

There are but a few examples of theology becoming linked to a nation. Israel, of course, would be the prime example, since the entire development of the nation is connected to a theological concept. Some may argue that the United States should be considered, as well, since its founding was based upon theological freedom. However, people do not speak in terms of Israeli theology or American theology; however, the term German theology is used. What then is German theology, and what is its significance? Within this chapter we will attempt to introduce the concept of German theology, its importance, and its influence both past and present. The term German theology does not speak to a concise set of beliefs or practices; instead it speaks to the massive impact Germany and its scholars have had on the development of theology worldwide. Regardless of your religious tradition or theological position, the influence that German scholars have had throughout the centuries within the theological sphere is irrefutable.

Theology and Its Development

In order to comprehend how and why there are so many different theological perspectives in the world, it is important to understand what theology is and how it evolved throughout time based upon a number of variables. The term theology comes from the Greek words θεός (theos, God), and λόγος (logos, word, speech, or expression). Thus, the term theology means a word about God. Or to put it in more common terms, it is a conversation about God. Therefore, when anyone dialogues about their perspective or conception of God, they are in fact doing theology, regardless of their educational or religious background (even if they have neither). As Charles Ryrie stated, Even an atheist has a theology.¹

Since theology is a composite of our thoughts about God that are then expressed, as our thoughts about God change, so then does our theology. Yet while theology may change over time, God does not; for it is not God who changes but rather our perspective and understanding of God that changes. This evolution in our cognition is the primary result of our environment and experiences. When we learn something new about God, it is not God who changed but our knowledge about God, which allows us to think and reflect on an entirely new level. Likewise, when our environmental realities differ from our current theological perspective, it causes us to reevaluate and reconsider our theological stance. Thus, our theology is constantly evolving and developing.

Søren Kierkegaard is quoted as having said, In order to experience and understand what it means to be a Christian, it is always necessary to recognize a definite historical situation.² This statement is true of the theological perspective held by any religion. Considering this notion that environmental realities affect the evolution of theology, it is no wonder that Germany has played such a massive role in the development of modern theology. Regardless of religious tradition, the historical events that have taken place within the borders of the German nation have not only caused German theologians to reconsider their theological perspectives but have also challenged scholars from all over the world.

German History and Theology

While it would be impossible to examine every event that has taken place within Germany and influenced Christian theology, it is important that we point out three major events—the Reformation, the Enlightenment, and the Holocaust. It may come as a surprise to many that the global theological advancements made by German thinkers were not only felt within Christianity but also within Judaism. Jewish life in Mainz dates back to the tenth century, making it one of the oldest Jewish communities in the German-speaking world. Some of modern Judaism’s most notable traditions and divisions trace their origins to German soil. Yet, before we discuss these events in detail, we must go back to the Renaissance, to the year 1440 in the city of Mainz, where Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press. While scholars today believe printing presses were developed in Asia as early as 1060 AD,³ it was Gutenberg’s invention that took the European continent by storm. His printing press changed the way knowledge was spread and allowed for the advancement of ideas to circulate to broader audiences much more quickly than had previously been possible. Without Gutenberg’s invention, the Reformation would not have had the opportunity to capture the masses the way it did.⁴

The Reformation

Approximately forty-six years after the death of Gutenberg, Albert von Brandenburg became the Archbishop of Mainz. To pay for his elevated status, Albert borrowed around 20,000 gold gulden from a wealthy Austrian merchant named Jakob Fugger.⁵ In order to pay back the loan, Albert received permission from Pope Leo X to sell indulgences within his diocese, under the condition that half of the money raised would be sent to Rome. Three years after assuming the Electorate of Mainz in 1514, Albert received a letter from a professor at the University of Wittenberg. The letter was sent on October 31, 1517 and was written primarily as an objection to the sale of indulgences. The letter, which is now known as the Ninety-Five Theses, was written by Martin Luther and ultimately led to the Reformation.

The Reformation was such a monumental event that it would be hard to evaluate the full extent of its impact. The Catholic Church had been subject to internal schisms prior to Martin Luther, but the Reformation caused such a staunch theological separation that it divided the Church and radically shifted the political landscape of the European continent. The impact of the Reformation affected not only the history of Christianity but changed the course of world history. Both the Church and the culture were subject to a cataclysmic shift, due in large part to Martin Luther.⁶ In chapter 5 of this book, we will discuss Luther in greater depth and examine a portion of his writings.

The Marktbrunnen was donated by Albert of Mainz in 1526.

The Marktbrunnen was donated by Albert of Mainz in 1526.

© Hannah Wolf

Without the Reformation, it is possible that many of the theologians presented in this book would never have found their place in history. As you will come to recognize in part II, many of the most influential figures were either influenced by or debated with their predecessors and peers. Reading these texts, you will follow the thought processes that led to the development and evolution of theology into what it is today. While many consider the Swiss theologian Karl Barth the greatest theologian of the twentieth century, what contributions would he have been able to make without the influence of Kant and the foundation provided by Martin Luther and the Reformation?⁷ The Reformation was such a momentous event that it would be exceptionally difficult to measure its impact on the history of the world and within the world of theology.

Enlightenment and Idealism

The association between the Age of Enlightenment and philosophy is so strong that it is easy to overlook the direction the movement took the theological world. One particular individual, Immanuel Kant, whom we discuss in chapter 6 of this book, has had exceptional influence on religious thought. Two hundred years after his death, many topics that are debated within the religious world are based upon the questions he formulated.⁸ One area of exploration Kant focused on that continues to be heavily analyzed is the relationship between science and religion. As such, it should come as no surprise that his work is heavily relied upon in apologetics. Perhaps Nietzsche was correct to consider Kant as a sort of Christian apologist.⁹

The degree of Kant’s influence was only fully realized centuries after his death. His book Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1781) was the first of his publications to gain notoriety. While the book did receive positive reception by many, there were also those who were very critical of the text. This led to the development of another philosophical movement in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, known as German Idealism. One of the most prominent voices in that movement was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. His Wissenschaft der Logik was heavily influenced by Kant’s Kritik der reinen Vernunft.

Though known primarily as a philosopher, Hegel attended the Protestant seminary in Tübingen early in his academic career.¹⁰ Despite the fact that he did not seem to be too interested in his theological training at the time, theological subjects were often popular topics in his lectures later in his career.¹¹ His analysis and presentation of these ideas were so well crafted that Karl Barth once pondered why Hegel had not become for the Protestant world what Thomas Aquinas had become for the Catholic world.¹² This is not to say that all of the Protestant world has been as accepting of Hegel as Barth was. The contention between Hegel and his colleague at Berlin University, Friedrich Schleiermacher, was widely known by those living in Berlin at the time.¹³ In particular, Hegel ridiculed Schleiermacher on his principle that religious faith was based upon a feeling of dependence, asserting that this indicated that a hungry dog would make the best Christian, since it would experience feelings of salvation when it’s hunger was satisfied.¹⁴

The Holocaust

Most recognize the impact that the Holocaust had on the political landscape of Europe, which changed drastically after the Second World War. Yet, many fail to consider the impact this tragedy had on theology within the Christian church. Catholic theologian Johann Baptist Metz made the assessment that in modern times it is impossible to do theology with a back turned to Auschwitz.¹⁵ In other words, Christian theologians today must reconcile the realities of the Holocaust with their theological perspectives concerning the character of God, the nature of humanity, and the role of the church.

It is not only the aftermath of the Holocaust that has caused theologians to reflect critically on their theological perspectives, but also events preceeding and transpiring during World War II gave cause for reflection. Questions concerning the Christian’s obligation to submit to government and how a Christian should respond to the injustices they see in the world around them are just a few of the topics that demanded attention. While history has largely ignored those who answered these questions incorrectly, the legacy of notable figures like Karl Barth and Dietrich Bonhoeffer (both of whom will be addressed in later chapters)—who were each forced to make vital decisions that impacted their careers and their lives—lives on, not only in their writings but in the examples they set.

The implications of the Holocaust among the Jewish people are devastating to say the least. The genocide of six million innocent people has caused serious reflection among the Jewish people, which is observed every year during Yom HaShoah. While we must never forget these events, we must also simultaneously recognize that these are not the first historical events in Germany that have impacted the Jewish people. While we look at the Holocaust in absolute horror, we cannot forget the great Jewish-German theological thinkers whose ideas and writings helped shape Judaism into what it is today.

The ShUM Cities, Unetanneh Tokef, and the Rhineland Massacres

The German cities of Speyer, Worms, and Mainz are known as the ShUM cities and played a pivotal role in Jewish life during the Middle Ages. The fingerprint of Mainz in particular can still be seen on worldwide Jewry. The city became an important location for Jewish study during the Middle Ages under the leadership of Rabbi Gershom ben Judah (ca. 960–1028), which differed greatly from the style of learning common in a Babylonian model yeshiva. Gershom was known as the light of the exile.¹⁶ Under his leadership, there were three major rulings on Jewish law that have become standard practice. First, it was declared that a man could only have one wife at a time. Second, women had to agree to a divorce before a man could give her a get.¹⁷ And finally, it was forbidden to open and read someone else’s mail. While these may all sound common today, these were revolutionary (and rather liberal) positions in the eleventh century.

The Unetanneh Tokef (ףקות הנתנו)¹⁸ is part of the liturgy recited during the High Holidays. According to the legend of Amnon of Mainz, the liturgy was the result of the martyrdom of Amnon, whom the archbishop of Mainz tried to convert. After multiple tries, Amnon told the archbishop that he needed three days to consider. Amnon then regretted wavering in his Jewish faith and told the archbishop that he would not convert and that his tongue should be removed for expressing doubts about Judaism. As punishment, the archbishop had Amnon’s hands and feet cut off.¹⁹

A few days later, Amnon asked to be carried to the synagogue where Rosh Hashanah services were being held. As one of the attendees began the Kedushah, Amnon asked him to wait as he recited what is now known as the Unetanneh Tokef. The legend has it that Amnon died as soon as he finished the prayer and appeared to Rabbi Kalonymus three days later in a dream asking him to spread the prayer throughout all Jewry. While there are no records of Amnon, the Unetanneh Tokef has continued to be an inspirational and moving portion of the High Holiday services.²⁰

Gravestone of Gershom ben Judah, Cemetery Judensand, Mainz

Gravestone of Gershom ben Judah, Cemetery Judensand, Mainz

© Hannah Wolf

Some scholars believe that it was Rabbi Kalonymus ben Meshullam who wrote the liturgy. Kalonymus was the head of the Jewish community in Mainz during the Rhineland massacres. The massacres were a product of the First Crusades, as French and German Christians brutally slaughtered Jews in the Rhineland who refused to convert to Christianity. While some Jews converted to avoid persecution, thousands were killed by the crusaders. Rabbi Kalonymus sent a letter to King Henry IV, who later issued an order that Jews were not to be murdered. Nevertheless, Kalonymus, along with fifty-three others of the Jewish community, were forced to take their own lives rather than be subjected to the hands of the enemy during the Worms massacre.²¹ The attack on the Jewish community of Mainz was brutal and, at that time, was considered the largest act of violence committed against a Jewish community in Europe.²²

Gravestone of Kalonymus ben Meshullam, Cemetery Judensand, Mainz

Gravestone of Kalonymus ben Meshullam, Cemetery Judensand, Mainz

© Hannah Wolf

It has been reported that many of the Jews who converted during the threat of the crusaders later returned to Judaism. However, the events of the Rhineland massacre presented a number of issues to Jewish theologians and scholars on the issue of suicide. Some have tried to link the events to the suicide of King Saul in 1 Samuel 31, as well as to the actions of those in Masada and the Bar Kochba revolts. While the closest similarities of the Rhineland massacre are those of Masada, the events of Masada are largely ignored by Rabbinic scholars; thus the events of the Rhineland Massacre brought the topic to the forefront of discussion and debate.

The Birth of Modern Judaism

Nineteenth-century Germany is a crucial period in Jewish history, especially as it relates to how Judaism is studied and practiced today. The discipline of Judaic studies owes its founding to Leopold Zunz who, in 1819, established the Society for the Culture and Science of Judaism. The purpose of the organization was to advance the academic study of Judaism.²³ Yet it was not only the study of Judaism that was important in the nineteenth century but also the future of Judaism and how the religion should be lived. Competing ideas about how Judaism