The Terrestrial Protected Areas of Madagascar: Their History, Description, and Biota, Volume 3: Western and southwestern Madagascar - Synthesis

By Steven M. Goodman

In 1989, a book written by Martin E. Nicoll and Olivier Langrand was published on the protected areas of Madagascar, which heralded in a new era of conservation for this island nation. In the subsequent three decades, there was an important increase in inventories and studies on Madagascar’s terrestrial biota. This work led to significant changes in the systematics of Malagasy plants and animals, a large percentage unique to the island, and a notable augmentation in knowledge on Malagasy biodiversity. In addition, the considerable expansion of the protected area network, reinforcement of legal tools, and the development of new management modes and tools have contributed to a modernization of the protected area network.

The purpose of The Terrestrial Protected Areas of Madagascar is to present a large-scale update of information available from 98 terrestrial protected areas, various analyses to understand general trends in the conservation of these sites, and a synthesis to assess the needs for future scientific programs. Beautifully illustrated throughout with color maps, graphs, and photos, these three volumes will be an important reference for students, researchers, protected area managers, conservationists, and visiting ecotourists. Volume three covers western and southwestern Madagascar, as well as provides a valuable synthesis.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Association Vahatra in Antananarivo
• Release date: Apr 15, 2021
• ISBN: 9782957099740

Book preview

Yesuf

Site 63. Bongolava

Official and short names: Paysage Harmonieux Protégé du Corridor Forestier Bongolava, short name – Bongolava.

IUCN category: V, protected harmonious landscape.

Legal aspects: Current management – Fikambanana Bongolava Maitso (FBM); former management – Conservation International (CI) and Ministère de l’Environnement, de l’Ecologie et des Forêts (MEEF); creation – based on Decree No. 2015-790 of 28 April 2015; status change – Forêt Classée de Bongolava established under Order No. 262-MAP/FOR of 2 February 1961 (50,300 ha) largely constitutes the Paysage Harmonieux Protégé du Corridor Forestier Bongolava created in 2015 under Decree No. 2015-790 of 28 April 2015; last status change – none; current surface (based on the decree in force) – 60,589 ha.

Total surface area elevational zonation: 60,701 ha. Elevational zonation – 0-250 m, 56,951 ha; 251-500 m, 3750 ha.

Synonyms: See Table 258.

Tableau 258. Liste des synonymes utilisés dans la littérature pour Bongolava (site 63). / Table 258. List of synonyms used in the literature for Bongolava (site 63).

Infrastructure (S. Wohlhauser): No major infrastructure (reception, visit, conservation, restoration, and research) was not documented by the site manager. The principal office of Directions régionales de l’Environnement et des Forêts des Régions SOFIA and Boeny are located at Antsohihy and Mahajanga (Majunga), respectively. The local management committees are based in neighboring villages. For site locations, see Figure 543.

Figure 543. Locality map of Bongolava (site 63) and different points of access. The majority of the localities mentioned in the text are shown on the map.

Access (S. M. Goodman, S. Wohlhauser): For site location map see Figure 14 (block 2A) and for protected area map see Figure 543. The site can be accessed from the RN6 (Ambondromamy [Antanambazaha]-Antsiranana [Diego Suarez]), specifically from different villages along the southern section from Antanandava to Boriziny (Port Bergé), which passes to the east of the Bongolava Ridge: Antanandava (50 km north of Ambondromamy), Tsararivotra (102 km of Ambondromamy) or from Anjiajia (140 km north of Ambondromamy).

Visitation rates: Non-MNP site and no available data.

Geology: The site sits on Upper Cretaceous sandstone and shale, Lower Cretaceous massive sandstone, sandy and glauconitic limestone, calcitic marl, iron-rich and sandy shale, marl, and glauconitic limestone. Upper Jurassic glauconitic marl, and marly and sandy limestone line its eastern boundary. Outcrops of Upper Cretaceous basalt, basanite, and sakalavite are present in the south and along its western edge.

Soils: The most common soils include Haplic Acrisols and Haplic Ferralsols, both of which are highly weathered, acidic, have a reduced capacity to retain essential cations (e.g. calcium and magnesium), and relatively high abundances of iron and aluminum. High concentrations of these elements can limit plant growth. Haplic Lixisols also occur at the site. Lixisols are weathered and characterized by low cation exchange capacity or retention, but unlike Acrisols and Ferralsols, they have high base saturation, which means that the cations found in these soils are mostly calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium; these nutrients are essential to plant growth, unlike the higher abundances of iron and aluminum found in Acrisols and Ferralsols.

Climate: This protected area is dominated by the dry climate of the northwest, with an average annual rainfall of around 1587 mm (1981 to 2017), 89% falls between November and April. Between 1985 and 2014, dry episodes of up to 10 days occurred at the height of the rainy season. During that timeframe, precipitation during the rainy season decreased by about 0.6% annually, or around -260 mm. Towards the end of this 30-year period, the rainy season tended to start and end 10 days earlier.

On average, the daily temperature varies between 20.7°C and 32.9°C. The cold season is between June and August, with temperatures dropping to 15.4°C. The warm season ranges between September and November. Peak temperatures over 37.9°C were recorded between December and February. Temperatures are not subject to major seasonal fluctuation, and the difference between the two seasons is about 1.5°C. From 1985 to 2014, the average minimum and maximum daily temperatures increased by 1.2°C and 1.9°C, respectively.

Vegetation (S. Wohlhauser)

Overview – The vegetation of Bongolava has been documented in forest reports and basic land use mapping. The vegetation is influenced by a seasonal climate with both strong rainfall and a pronounced dry season, which is reflected in the variable Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). The site extends eastward from the Bongolava cuesta, which occupies the western part of the site at elevations between 200 and 300 m. In the south, it overlooks the marly Mampikony Basin from a highly dissected escarpment, while to the north it is bordered by a landscape of valleys and hills. The natural forest cover is modulated by substrate (soil, granulometry, and incline) and erosion (lavaka in Malagasy), which is widespread.

Natural vegetation – On the humiferous sandy or little eroded soils of the plateau, a dry deciduous forest occurs with a heterogeneous canopy of 12 to 15 m. Tree composition varies, but often includes Uapaca (Phyllanthaceae), Sarcolaena and Leptolaena pauciiflora (Sarcolaenaceae), Strychnos (Loganiacae), Canarium (Burseraceae), Sideroxylon saxorum (Sapotaceae), Neoapaloxylon tuberosum and Dalbergia (Fabaceae), Abrahamia ditimena (Anacardiaceae), and Cryptocarya (Lauraceae). The understory is semi-open to closed, with Viguieranthus alternans (Fabaceae), Clusiaceae, Diporidium (Ochnaceae), Psychotria, Tricalysia (Rubiaceae), Alchornea alnifolia (Euphorbiaceae), and often many lianas, including Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae), Cassytha filiformis (Lauraceae), Flagellaria (Poaceae), and Paederia majungensis (Rubiaceae).

On eroded substrates (upper slopes) or coarse colluvium (base of escarpments), the dry deciduous forest has a reduced, discontinuous canopy of 8 to 10 m, favoring dense, species rich stratum of shrubs and bushes; trees here include Margaritaria rhomboidalis (Phyllanthaceae), Canarium, Sarcolaena, Dalbergia greveana, Stereospermum (Bignoniaceae), Xylopia (Annonaceae), Albizia mainaea (Fabaceae), Elaeocarpus (Elaeocarpaceae), Cedrelopsis grevei (Rutaceae), and Commiphora grandifolia (Burseraceae). These forests are often degraded and contain secondary species, such as Harungana madagascariensis (Hypericaceae) and Grewia (Malvaceae). On the white sands on top of the plateau, is a natural xerophytic thicket containing Pachypodium (Apocynaceae), with a succulent trunk.

In the valleys dominated by marl soils and along riverbanks, riparian forest grows up to 20-25 m with Eugenia (Myrtaceae), Dalbergia baronii, Canarium, Zanthoxylum tsihanimposa (Rutaceae), Xylopia flexuosa, Stereospermum, Breonadia salicina (Rubiaceae); several species have buttresses. Along lakes (Andriakanala and Matsaborifaly) and in basins with clay soils, there are swamp forests with Raphia (Arecaceae), Voacanga and Mascarenhasia (Apocynaceae), Ficus (Moraceae), and stilt-rooted taxa such as Pandanus (Pandanaceae) and Uapaca. In certain places these swamps are reduced to simple stands of Raphia. The lakes are bordered by herbaceous marshes with native aquatic vegetation.

Modified vegetation – The secondary grasslands and pastures, resulting from deforestation and repeated burning, cover more than a third of the site; they are comprised of Aristida rufescens, A. multicaulis, Hyparrhenia rufa, Panicum maximum, Heteropogon contortus, and Hyperthelia dissoluta (Poaceae). This vegetation type can also include scattered resilient shrubs and trees, such as Tamarindus indica and Albizia boivini (Fabaceae), Xylopia, Capurodendron, Rhodololaena (Sarcolaenaceae) or fire-resistant taxa such as Ziziphus (Rhamnaceae), Erythroxylum platycladum (Erythroxylaceae), and Arecaceae (Hyphaene and Bismarckia). Intense erosion and recurrent fires can both result in areas of bare soil. Due to the diversity of substrates and the agro-pastoral dynamics, the Bongolava protected area represents a poorly explored area for vegetation studies of the Western Domain. It is important to mention that some previous plant inventory information need verification.

Flora (P. B. Phillipson, L. D. Andriamahefarivo, M. Rabarimanarivo, P. P. Lowry II)

Collection history – Botanical inventory of the Bongolava area began in 1951 with the staff of the Service Forestier. Additional inventory work was done by Bisset, starting in 1987, followed by De Block, Morat, Rakotoarisoa, Ramananjanahary, and Razakamalala. See Table 259 for summary information on the flora of Bongolava.

Table 259. Summary information on the flora of Bongolava (site 63).

Noteworthy species – The flora contains typical dry forest elements such as members of the genus Commiphora (Burseraceae), which is represented by at least four species: C. grandifolia, C. marchandii, C. orbicularis, and C. pervilleana (Figure 544), all endemic to Madagascar, while the rare C. stellulata is known from four locations adjacent to Bongolava and is likely to occur within the site. One species is restricted to Bongolava, Eugenia barriei (Myrtaceae), it is known only from the type collection.

Figure 544. Commiphora pervilleana (family Burseraceae) in its natural habitat at Ankorikakely Ramena, it also occurs at Bongolava (site 63). (Photo by George E. Schatz.)

Eight species are known from Bongolava and no more than four other localities: Annonaceae - Uvaria ambongoensis, known also from Ampasindava (site 12) and Ankarafantsika (site 68); Connaraceae - Burttia prunoides, is known only from Bongolava and from two localities on mainland Africa; Dryopteridaceae - Ctenitis truncicola, also known from Manongarivo (site 14); Ebenaceae - Diospyros pervillei, also known from Ampasindava; Euphorbiaceae - Euphorbia ankaranae EN, also known from Ankarana (site 8); and two Rubiaceae - Psychotria ankarensis, also known from Ankarana, and Schizenterospermum rotundifolium, also known from Manongarivo and Ankarafantsika.

Members of two families endemic to Madagascar are present at Bongolava: Sarcolaenaceae, represented by two species: Mediusella arenaria, known from Cap Saint André to Ambilobe, including at Andrafiamena Andavakoera (site 7) and Ankarafantsika, and Perrierodendron boinense, known also from Loky Manambato (site 6) and Ankarafantsika, and Sphaerosepalaceae, represented by two species: Rhopalocarpus lucidus and R. similis, both with a large distribution and present in many protected areas.

Madagascar Catalogue URL – http://www.tropicos.org/projectwebportal.aspx?pagename=PA_Bongolava&projectid=17

Fauna (S. M. Goodman): With the exception of some work on amphibians, reptiles, birds, and lemurs, this relatively large site of patchwork dry deciduous and riparian forest is poorly known for most land vertebrate groups (Table 260). No terrestrial animal species is known to be a local endemic to the site. Additional work in the form of biological inventories and associated systematic studies are needed to provide further data on measures of local biodiversity. Given the levels of deforestation in and around this site over the past decades, such research should be given high priority to document the remaining local biota.

Table 260. List of the known vertebrates of Bongolava (site 63). The different codes are not necessarily the same for each group and these details are presented in the Introduction to Part II under Vertebrate lists.

¹ Introduite / introduced

Cultural aspects: No response from the site manager.

Anthropogenic pressures: No response from the site manager.

Forest loss: Changes in forest cover from 1996 to 2016 include: dry deciduous forest and total forest surface area - 39.0% loss (Table 261, Figure 545). The reduction of forest habitat within what would become this protected area in 2015 was greater from 2006 to 2016, as compared to 1996 to 2006. Deforestation is associated with slash-and-burn agriculture (tetika in Malagasy) and repetitive uncontrolled fires. Considerable zones within and outside of the protected area were already without natural vegetation before 1996. A previous measure of mean annual deforestation rates between 1994 and 1997, incorporating a part the forests in the future protected area, was calculated as 2.3%.

Table 261. Measures of natural forest loss from 1996 to 2006 and from 2006 to 2016 in different natural formations at Bongolava (site 63).

Figure 545. Measures of natural forest loss between 1996 and 2006 and from 2006 and 2016 at Bongolava (site 63). See Introduction (Part II) under section entitled Forest loss for explanatory details.

Fire: The annual density (number of fires/km²) changed between 2006 and 2016 from 0.314 to 0.200 in the protected area and from 0.247 to 0.337 within a radius of 5 km of the limits; the average annual change was -4.4% in the protected area and +3.1% in the 5 km radius (Figure 546). The average number of detected fires in the protected area between 2006 and 2015 was 126, while in 2016, 121 fires were detected.

Figure 546. Diagram of the number of fire points between 2006 and 2016 in the Bongolava protected area (site 63) within (red) and in a 5 km radius around the site (green) and compared across A) years and B) months.

Fires were mainly detected between June and October. Fire density is among the highest in the country, whether in or the peripheral zone of a protected area. Detected fires are mainly associated with pasture renewal in secondary grasslands, which sometimes penetrate the edges or into the forest associated with strong winds (Figure 547); this is also the case for uncontrolled cleaning fires of already cleared parcels or charcoal production. The progressive increase of fires since 2009 is probably related to the recrudescence of slash-and-burn agriculture in the wake of the politico-economic crisis. In this region, fire is an important driver of degradation and progressive destruction of forest cover.

Figure 547. Burned forest edges from a pastoral fire in the north of Bongolava (site 63). (3D view, GoogleEarth, 23 May 2015.)

Invasive species: No response from the site manager.

Bibliography

Dufils, J.-M. 2003. Remaining forest cover. In The natural history of Madagascar, eds. S. M. Goodman & J. P. Benstead, pp. 88-96. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Rabenandrasana, M., Raminoarisoa, V., Voninavoko, V. M. R., Randrianarisoa, M. S., Seing, S. T., Rakotonirainy, O. E. & Ratelolahy, J. F. 2001. Evaluation écologique et valeur de la biodiversité dans les reliques de forêts sèches sur le plateau de Bongolava entre Port-bergé et Mampikony. Rapport final de consultation de groupe.

Rakotoarison, A., Erens, J., Ratsoavina, F. M. & Vences, M. 2015. Amphibian and reptile records from around the Betsiboka Delta area in North-Western Madagascar. Herpetology Notes, 8: 535-543.

Rakotozafy, V. 1996. Cartographie et résultats d’inventaire de la forêt classée de Bongolava. Bureau d’études du Département des Eaux & Forêts, Ecole Supérieure des Sciences Agronomiques. Projet KEPEM-USAID-Madagascar, Service des Ressources Forestières, Direction des Eaux & Forêts, Antananarivo.

Ramamonjisoa, B. L. 1995. Etude de la problématique forestière et agricole de la forêt classée de Bongolava. Projet KEPEM-USAID-Madagascar, Service des Ressources Forestières, Direction des Eaux & Forêts, Antananarivo.

Soto Flandez, M. 1996. Plan d’aménagement et de gestion : Forêt de Bongolava. Projet KEPEM-USAID-Madagascar, Service des Ressources Forestières, Direction des Eaux & Forêts, Antananarivo.

Trainer, J. 1994. Résultats de l’inventaire forestier et proposition pour une gestion durable des ressources forestières. Projet « Opération de développement intégré de la région de Port-Bergé ». GTZ, Antananarivo.

Site 64. Antrema

Official and short names: Réserve de Ressources Naturelles du Site Bioculturel d’Antrema, short name – Antrema.

IUCN category: VI, natural resources reserve. Other statute – Site Ramsar du Site Bioculturel d’Antrema.

Legal aspects: Current management – Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle (MNHN), Paris; former management – Projet Bioculturel d’Antrema and Zoo de Vincennes; creation – based on Decree No. 2015-712 of 21 April 2015; status change – none; last status change – none; current surface (based on the decree in force) – 20,620 ha.

Total surface area and elevational zonation: 20,424 ha. Elevational zonation – 0-250 m, 20,424 ha.

Synonyms: See Table 262.

Table 262. List of synonyms used in the literature for Antrema (site 64).

Infrastructure (R. Edmond, S. Wohlhauser): No information on tourist infrastructure, conservation facilities (firebreaks and guard posts), ecological restoration (parcels and nursery) has been communicated by the site manager. There is a research station at Antrema, from which management operations are conducted; ecological study facilities also occur at the site. Given the specificity of the site, logistic aspects (access, circuits, and guiding) and spending the night (camping and supplies) should be discussed with the site manager. Different localities at the site are presented in Figure 548.

Figure 548. Locality map of Antrema (site 64) and different points of access. The majority of the localities mentioned in the text are shown on the map.

Access (R. Edmond, S. Wohlhauser): For site location map see Figure 14 (block 2A) and for protected area map see Figure 548. Antrema is accessible by road and can be reached from Mahajanga (Majunga) by taking the car ferry across the Betsiboka River to Katsepy, continuing west for 4 km on the principal secondary road (RNT19 or sometimes referred to as RIP112), and then following signs when approaching the protected area entrance. Alternatively, boats can be hired in Mahajanga to Katsepy, with drop-off near the lighthouse, which is in close vicinity to the protected area. Further information on the site can be obtained at the site entrance or in Mahajanga at the Office du Tourisme de Boeny.

Visitation rates: Non-MNP site and no available data.

Geology: The majority is underlain by a sandy, iron-rich hardpan, or cuirass, that was deposited during the Quaternary. Its western portion is mangrove swamp, and the northern edge is cross-bedded, multicolored sandstone, shale, and marl with petrified wood that were deposited during the Upper Tertiary to Lower Quaternary Periods (Pliocene and Pleistocene Epochs). The southern tip is underlain by sedimentary rocks including limestone, dolomite, marl, shale, and gypsum. These were deposited during the Lower Tertiary Period of the Cenozoic Era (Eocene Epoch).

Soils: The site is in close proximity to the mouth of Betsiboka River and is strongly influenced by the associated hydrological dynamics. Gleysols are the most common soils at the site, which are characteristic of waterlogged areas that do not receive regular additions of sediment, often grayish-white to blue-green in coloration, and with no abrupt changes in texture for the first meter of soil depth. The second most common soil order is Haplic Acrisol, which are highly weathered, acidic, have a reduced capacity to retain base cations (e.g. calcium and magnesium), and relatively high abundances of iron and aluminum. High concentrations of these elements can limit plant growth. In addition, Ferralic Arenosols also occur. Arenosols are sandy soils primarily found in areas with dry climates, often where the parent material is highly weathered sandstone, and with little or no soil horizon profile development. Ferralic Arenosols have within a meter of the soil surface a layer with low capacity for cation retention and low base cation saturation, usually resulting in relatively abundant iron concentrations. Most of the remaining soils are classified as Haplic Ferralsols. Similar to the Acrisols, these soils are highly weathered, acidic, have reduced capacity to retain base, and relatively high abundances of iron and aluminum.

Climate: This protected area is dominated by the dry climate of the northwest, with an average annual rainfall of around 1440 mm (1981 to 2017), 99% falls between November and April. Between 1985 and 2014, dry episodes of up to 20 days occurred at the height of the rainy season. During this timeframe, precipitation during the rainy season increased by about 1.1% annually, or around 334 mm. Towards the end of this 30-year period, the rainy season tended to end 10 days later.

On average, the daily temperature varies between 22.1°C and 31.7°C. The cold season is between June and August, with temperatures dropping to 17.0°C. The warm season ranges between September and November. Peak temperatures over 34.5°C were recorded between December and February. Temperatures are not subject to major seasonal fluctuation, and the difference between the two seasons is about 1.5°C. From 1985 to 2014, the average minimum daily temperature increased by 1.4°C, while the average maximum temperature did not significantly change.

Vegetation (J. A. Tahinarivony)

Overview – Antrema is well known due to a range of studies carried out across on its different habitats, which vary in elevation from near sea level to 86 m (Figure 549). Several vegetation surveys have been undertaken in its dry deciduous forests.

Figure 549. Different vegetation types at Antrema (site 64) from littoral to inland: sublittoral marshes and grasslands, dry forests on white sands (partly replaced by the village), secondary grasslands sometimes with Bismarckia nobilis (family Arecaceae) palms (grey shade), and dry forests on sandstone. (Photo by Francis Lebreton.)

Vegetation naturelle – The dry deciduous forest of Antrema is 10 to 15 m tall, with three strata and an open undergrowth rich in herbaceous species, including Asparagus (Asparagaceae) and Hypoestes (Acanthaceae). Emergents, reaching 15 m, include Terminalia (Combretaceae), Dalbergia (Fabaceae), and Vitex (Lamiaceae). The upper stratum is open in the dry season and slightly closed in the wet season; it is dominated by Strychnos (Loganiaceae), Zanthoxylum (Rutaceae), Grewia (Malvaceae), Diospyros (Ebenaceae), Ochna (Ochnaceae), Bridelia (Euphorbiaceae), and Commiphora (Burseraceae). The middle stratum is semi-open and dominated by shrubs and recruits of canopy species; characteristic taxa include Baudouinia (Fabaceae), Doratoxylon and Macphersonia (Sapindaceae), Euphorbia (Euphorbiaceae), Grewia, Memecylon (Melastomataceae), and Uncarina (Pedaliaceae). The vegetation is rich in vines, the most notable being Anisocycla (Menispermaceae), Aristolochia albida (Aristolochiaceae), Combretum (Combretaceae), Landolphia (Apocynaceae), Dichapetalum (Dichapetalaceae), and Vanilla madagascariensis (Orchidaceae). On well drained sandy soils, one finds low thickets, probably similar to those found at Bombetoka Beloboka (site 65).

In the Bay of Boina, west of Antrema, there are vast mangroves (Ampapamena, Antsoherimasiba, Bako and Antsikiry) which show three stages of degradation from cyclones and human disturbance: mangroves which are open, stunted or dense. These mangroves shelter halophilic species typical of estuary vegetation of the western Indian Ocean.

The site also includes marshes and probably bogs. The herbaceous marshes have a fairly homogeneous structure, 0.5 to 2 m high; the dominant genera include Cyperus, Scleria and Eleocharis (Cyperaceae) and Panicum (Poaceae), while woody species such as Bismarckia nobilis, Voacanga thouarsii (Apocynaceae) and Raphia (Arecaceae) are also at times present.

Modified vegetation – Secondary grasslands and pastures on red lateritic soil or sandy substrates cover a large part of the protected area. They vary in height from 1 to 1.5 m, but also include some woody species such as Bismarckia nobilis (Arecaceae), Acridocarpus (Malpighiaceae), Mundulea (Fabaceae), and Erythroxylum (Erythroxylaceae). Herbaceous taxa include Heteropogon, Eragrostis, Hyparrhenia rufa, Aristida, Panicum, Paspalum, and Arundinella (Poaceae).

Flora (P. B. Phillipson, L. D. Andriamahefarivo, P. P. Lowry, N. Rakotonirina, N. Ravololomanana)

Collection history – Botanical inventory of Antrema began in 1912 with Viguier and followed by Perrier de la Bâthie in 1914. The site is not known to have been visited again until 1989 by Du Puy, then Beentje in 1991, Randrianaivo in 2003, and Labat in 2005. Since 2008, ongoing collaboration between the Université d’Antananarivo and the MNHN has resulted in intensive inventory at Antrema, including a brief report on common, noteworthy, and useful plant species. However, only data prior to 2013 is currently available. See Table 263 for summary information on the flora of Antrema.

Table 263. Summary information on the flora of Antrema (site 64).

Noteworthy species – The flora of Antrema reflects the diversity of habitats found at the site, including typical dry deciduous forest and thicket floristic elements, such as Polyscias boivinii (Araliaceae) (Figure 550), as well as species that occur in secondary grassland, wooded or not, such as Mascarenhasia lisianthiflora (Apocynaceae). Four threatened species are reported from the site: Cedrelopsis microfoliolata (Rutaceae), Mundulea menabeensis (Fabaceae), and Pachypodium rosulatum and P. rutenbergianum (Apocynaceae), but these are not validated by published IUCN Red List assessments.

Figure 550. Flowering branch of Polyscias boivinii (family Araliaceae), here photographed in the Makay, and a common tree in dry deciduous forests and rocky outcrops throughout western Madagascar and present at Antrema (site 64). (Photo by Charles Rakotovao.)

No species is currently documented only from Antrema, but eight species are known from Antrema and no more than four other localities: Achariaceae - Prockiopsis calcicola, also known from Mahavavy Kinkony (site 66), Beanka (site 81), Bemaraha (site 82), and near Mahajanga; Capparaceae - Boscia plantefolii, also known from Mitsinjo, Namoroka (site 69), and Taranta; Ebenaceae - Diospyros subfalciformis, also known from Ambongo (Boina) and Mahavavy Kinkony; Fabaceae - Dalbergia tsiandalana, also known from near Antsiranana, Baie de Baly (site 67), and near Mahajanga, and Neoharmsia madagascariensis, known also from Bemaraha and Namoroka; Oleaceae - Noronhia tubulosa, also known from Mahavavy Kinkony and Ankarafantsika (site 68); Polygalaceae - Polygala pteropoda, also known from Anjiajia and Mandritsara; and Rubiaceae - Schizenterospermum rotundifolium, also known from Bongolava (site 63), Baie de Baly, Ankarafantsika, and Tsitondraina. Only one of Madagascar’s endemic plant families has been recorded at Antrema: Sphaerosepalaceae, represented by Rhopalocarpus similis, a widespread species in western and central Madagascar.

Madagascar Catalogue URL – http://www.tropicos.org/projectwebportal.aspx?pagename=PA_Antrema&projectid=17

Fauna (S. M. Goodman, M. J. Raherilalao, S. Wohlhauser): This site with a mixture of dry deciduous forest and extensive coastal areas with mangroves, has been the subject of different biological studies and for most terrestrial vertebrates can be considered as relatively well known (Table 264). No land vertebrate species is known to be a local endemic to the site. The bird fauna is rich, with a good portion of the taxa being associated with coastal or freshwater habitats. The protected area has a small population of Propithecus deckenii, an Endangered species of lemur (Figure 551). Additional work in the form of biological inventories and associated systematic studies are needed to provide further data on measures of local biodiversity and the conservation importance of this protected area.

Table 264. List of the known vertebrates of Antrema (site 64). The different codes are not necessarily the same for each group and these details are presented in the Introduction to Part II under Vertebrate lists

¹ Introduite / introduced

Figure 551. One of the flagship vertebrate species at Antrema (site 64) is the Crowned Sifaka, Propithecus coronatus (family Indriidae) that has a very limited distribution between the Betsiboka and Mahavavy Rivers and is considered an Endangered species. (Photo by Gilles Boeuf.)

Cultural aspects (R. Edmond, C.-A. Gautier, Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle): The protected area was created based on a request from the people of the Antrema area, in particular the royal family (mpanjaka in Malagasy), associated with the protection of the local population of Propithecus coronatus (family Indriidae). These lemurs are considered by the local Sakalava ethnic group to be reincarnated ancestors and, hence, taboo (fady in Malagasy) animals. The local people are related by bloodlines or via marriage and are under the authority of the Prince Tsimanendry, guardian of tradition and who resides in the sacred village of Doany. The 40 sacred lakes of Antrema are classified as a RAMSAR site.

Anthropogenic pressures (R. Edmond, C.-A. Gautier, Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle): The site manager noted the following threats: slash-and-burn agriculture (hatsake in Malagasy) in forested areas, wildfires from secondary grasslands entering the forest edge, and utilization of mangroves for wood products. Concerning local wildlife, a number of different organisms are exploited: sea turtles and their eggs, crabs, and sea cucumbers, as well as the eggs of nesting water birds.

Forest loss: Changes in forest cover from 1996 to 2016 include: dry deciduous forest - 17.0% loss, mangrove - 1.5% loss, and total forest surface area - 6.1% loss (Table 265, Figure 552). The reduction of forest habitat within what would become this protected area in 2015 was greater from 2006 to 2016, as compared to 1996 to 2006. On the basis of satelitte images, mangrove loss in the extreme north is clearly associated with the erosion of the littoral zone. Considerable areas within and outside of the protected were already without natural vegetation before 1996.

Table 265. Measures of natural forest loss from 1996 to 2006 and from 2006 to 2016 in different natural formations at Antrema (site 64).

Figure 552. Measures of natural forest loss between 1996 and 2006 and from 2006 and 2016 at Antrema (site 64). See Introduction (Part II) under section entitled Forest loss for explanatory