Prophecy Today: Reflections from a South Africa Context

By CLF Publishers

Prophecy is an increasingly important feature of the “changing faces” of Christianity in the so-called Global South, but especially so in the rapidly expanding neo-Pentecostal and charismatic churches in the Southern African context. Prophecy is a biblical concept. Yet, the new wave of a particular kind of prophecy is challenging traditional theological viewpoints on prophecy. Prophecy today is a highly contested topic. Not just because of the phenomenon of often questionable practices of the new prophets, but also because of the apparent lack of ‘prophets’ making a meaningful impact on our societies – like Desmond Tutu and Alan Boesak who in the recent past spoke out against Apartheid. It seems as if we do not find such people anymore. Can the church still have a prophetic voice in the postcolonial era, or should we simply focus on the search for health and wealth of mainly individuals, while quietly supportng the current governments?

• Language: English
• Publisher: CLF Publishers
• Release date: Aug 1, 2016
• ISBN: 9781868045006

Book preview

Preface

A large part of the Bible consists of prophecy. So it would seem that a Christian cannot be against prophecy. Yet, what are we to make of all those prophets that pop up nowadays in Southern Africa? Many churches never had any prophets and now they are everywhere. And there are all these scandals connected to them about abuse, greed and deceit. Prophecy today is a highly contested topic. Not just because of these new neo-Pentecostal prophets, there is also the issue of those who were sometimes called ‘prophets’ in the recent past, like Desmond Tutu and Alan Boesak, who spoke out against Apartheid. Why don’t we seem to have such people anymore? Can the church still have a prophetic voice in the post-Apartheid era, or should we simply support the current government?

Many questions surround the topic of prophecy. Especially now in the region of Southern Africa, prophecy has shifted from being a topic for Biblical exegesis, to being the focal point of much debate. What to think about prophecy today in the Southern African context? In this double-blind peer-reviewed book a group of theologians and scholars of religion from Zambia and South Africa reflects upon this question. Anthropologists, Biblical scholars, practical theologians and many others shine their light on what prophecy can mean today in this context. We hope that this book will stimulate a continuing Southern African discourse on this very interesting and relevant topic of prophecy, which is such a prominent aspect of the changing face of Christianity in our region at the moment.

After the introductory article, which brings all the contributions to this book together, in the first part of this book Johanneke Kroesbergen-Kamps, Nelly Mwale, Joseph Chita and Friedrich de Wet portray the two types of prophecy that are the focus of much debate in Southern Africa. The second part of this book begins with an ethnographic description of prophecy in the context of an AIC worship service in South Africa by Cas Wepener and Marcel Barnard, and continues with reflections upon the background of the neo-Pentecostal prophecy and the need for dialogue on prophecy within the church as a whole by Lukas Soko, Edwin Zulu and Teddy Sakupapa. In the third part of this book Wynand Retief and Etienne de Villiers argue for thorough social analysis as a mode of prophecy, and D.T. Banda and Dustin Ellington elaborate on the New Testament perspective on prophecy, which turns out to be remarkably different from both the Old Testament perspective and the two types of prophecy that are so much debated nowadays. In the fourth and final part of this book the Zambian systematic theologians Hermen Kroesbergen and Lameck Banda evaluate prophecy today, and Gideon van der Watt responds to their articles from a South African perspective. In all the four parts of this book you will find this interaction between Zambian and South African scholars, and we hope that this will inspire ongoing dialogue in Southern Africa on such important topics as prophecy today.

In preparation for this book we had stimulating discussion-meetings about drafts of the articles found in this book, at Justo Mwale University in Lusaka, Zambia. I would like to express my gratitude to Management of Justo Mwale University, especially Vice-Chancellor Professor Edwin Zulu, for their encouragement of academic research, and the permission to transform this edition of our journal Word & Context into a book. I would like to thank the editors of the journal In die Skriflig, for their kind permission to re-publish the article by Etienne de Villiers.¹ I thank D.T. Banda and Johanneke Kroesbergen-Kamps for their partnership in editing this book, and all the others who made this book possible: Obed Kealotswe, Austin Cheyeka and Thera Rasing, Gideon van der Watt on behalf of Partners in Mission, and the publisher CLF.

Hermen Kroesbergen

Editor

July 2016

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1 This article was previously published as: D. Etienne de Villiers 2011, ‘Do the prophetic and reformist approaches in Christian ethics exclude one another? A responsibility ethics attempt at reconciliation,’ in In die Skriflig/In Luce Verbi 46(1), Art. #38, 8 pages.

Contributors

D.T. Banda is lecturer in New Testament, Greek and Hermeneutics at Justo Mwale University. He holds a PhD in New Testament Interpretation from the University of the Free State in South Africa and an MA in Political Science from Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX, USA. His interests are in hermeneutics, ethics and governance.

Lameck Banda is lecturer in Systematic Theology at Justo Mwale University. He holds a PhD in Systematic Theology from the University of the Free State in South Africa.

Marcel Barnard is professor of Practical Theology at the Protestant Theological University in the Netherlands, a professor of Liturgical Studies at the Vrije Universiteit in the Netherlands, and professor extraordinary of Practical Theology the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa. He is also Research Associate at the Department of Practical Theology at the University of Pretoria.

Joseph Chita (MIED Oslo, MEd RS) is a lecturer in the Department of Religious Studies, School of Education at the University of Zambia.

Etienne de Villiers is professor in Christian Ethics at the University of Pretoria in South Africa.

Friedrich W. De Wet is professor in Practical Theology at the North-West University in South Africa.

Dustin W. Ellington is lecturer in New Testament and Greek at Justo Mwale University. He holds a PhD in New Testament from Duke University in the USA. He is also a Research Fellow in New Testament at the University of the Free State in South Africa.

Hermen Kroesbergen is lecturer in Systematic Theology and Philosophy of Religion at Justo Mwale University. He holds a PhD in Systematic Theology from the Protestant Theological University in the Netherlands. During the preparation of this book he was Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Pretoria in South Africa.

Johanneke Kroesbergen-Kamps is lecturer in Religious Studies, Humanities and Research Methods at Justo Mwale University. She holds a MA in Religious Studies from the Rijksuniversiteit Groningen in the Netherlands. And she is a Research Fellow in the Department Religion Studies, in the faculty of Theology at the University of the Free State in South Africa.

Nelly Mwale (MEd RS) is a lecturer in the Department of Religious Studies, School of Education at the University of Zambia.

Wynand Retief is lecturer in Old Testament and Hebrew at Justo Mwale University. He holds a D.Th. in Old Testament from the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa. He is also a Research Fellow at the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa.

Teddy Chalwe Sakupapa is lecturer in ecumenical studies in the department of Religion and Theology at The University of the Western Cape in South Africa. He is a PhD candidate at the same University.

Lukas R.K. Soko is lecturer in Practical Theology at Justo Mwale University. He holds a PhD in Practical Theology from the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa.

Gideon van der Watt is the Executive Secretary for Partners in Mission, a ministry of the Dutch Reformed Church Free State and he is Research Fellow at the University of the Free State in Bloemfontein, South Africa. He holds a PhD in Missiology from the University of the Free State.

Cas Wepener is Professor and Head of Department of Practical Theology at the University of Pretoria in South Africa.

Edwin Zulu is lecturer in Old Testament and Hebrew at Justo Mwale University. He holds a PhD in Old Testament from the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa. And he is a Research Fellow at the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa.

1

Prophecy today; reflections from a Southern African context:

An introduction

Hermen Kroesbergen

Do you need deliverance, healing or prophecy? This is the text on one of the many billboards in Lusaka that currently advertise the coming of particular prophets to Zambia. As according to the Biblical proverb a prophet is not honoured in his home town, many of these new prophets come from abroad, and, if they do, that fact is used as an extra selling point. Less biblical may it be to advertise prophecy as something you might want. It is hard to imagine Elijah, Jonah, Nathan or Amos promoting their services in that way: Do you need prophecy? Surely, Ahab, the Ninevites, David and the other people they prophesied to, did need it, but they would not have responded eagerly when asked ‘Do you need prophecy?’

Nowadays in Southern Africa, prophecy is seen as something desirable, something you want. This is partly due to another development which connects prophecy closely to healing and deliverance. Do you need deliverance, healing or prophecy? – these three things can be put together, for, quite often, they are basically the same thing: something is wrong in your life, you need to be made whole again, your healing is blocked by evil spirits from which you need to be delivered, and the prophet can do so by denouncing the evil and speaking the breakthrough of good things into your life. If you want the circumstances of your life to improve – materially, physically or otherwise – then you need deliverance, healing and prophecy, and that is what you may expect from many of those who describe themselves as prophets in Southern Africa today.

This book contains reflections upon prophecy today in Southern Africa from several different perspectives. Theologians and scholars in religion from Zambia and South Africa describe and analyse the different forms of prophecy in their context, and try to provide indications of the direction that prophecy could take from here. One of the most striking elements, which return in almost all of the articles in this book, is that there seem to be two quite distinctive concepts of ‘prophet’ present in the Christian society of Southern Africa these days, both with their own strengths and challenges.

On the one hand, there are the prophets as the one from the advertisement cited above, who are described as powerful men (and sometimes women) of God who speak prophecy into people’s lives, which at the same time delivers them from evil spirits and blockages and miraculously heals them. On the other hand, the title ‘prophet’ is used to describe those Christians who courageously stand up against the elite in society to fight for social justice. Especially in South Africa this second concept of prophet is immediately associated with those who spoke out against the Apartheid-regime. These two types of prophets seem to be very different kinds of people: the first miracle-workers and the second political activists.

The first question addressed in this introductory article will be why we do use the same title ‘prophet’ to refer to both of them. The different articles in this book clarify the two concepts of prophet and show how both are different, but share the longing for a better life, and use the Old Testament prophets as their main examples. Both types of prophecy are connected to their own distinct kind of problems as well. The New Testament scholars contributing to this book point out that in New Testament times an important shift in the concept of prophecy had already taken place. In the second part of this introduction this will be taken as a lead to point towards an adjusted kind of prophecy which addresses the issues of the two types of prophecy, by reconsidering both what prophecy is and who the prophets are. However, we will begin with the way in which the two kinds of prophets are discussed in this volume: are prophets miracle-workers or political activists?

Two concepts of prophecy

Johanneke Kroesbergen-Kamps detected the two concepts of prophecy present in Zambian society in interviews done by her students with different pastors concerning their ideas about prophecy. Similar phrases were used by all of the pastors, but what these phrases implied differed remarkably. All pastors held that prophets are speaking the word of God, but there were divergent opinions on how this relates to the Bible as the word of God. All pastors saw prophets as giving direction, but there were many differences as to what extent this refers to moral direction and whether the entire society is addressed. All pastors assumed that prophets bring about change, but they disagreed on whether this change is to lead towards a better world for all, or an improved life for particular individuals.

The divergence in opinion about prophecy followed denominational lines: Pentecostal pastors on one side, Presbyterians on the other, and a mixture of both among the Reformed pastors. Prophecy as delivering a direct message from God was significantly more present among Pentecostals, and would fit the advertisement with which we started. Kroesbergen-Kamps even refers to a Zimbabwean church, which rejects the Bible completely as old news compared to the fresh prophecies they receive every day. On the other hand, a prophet as someone teaching the biblical message, as is the emphasis among Presbyterians, may be closer to the prophet as a social activist. For all interviewed Presbyterians prophecy implies a warning call for the community, whereas in Reformed and Pentecostal circles prophecy gives direction more often by informing the individual about his or her future. Most clearly the divergence between the two concepts of prophecy is seen in the third distinction: almost all Pentecostal pastors expect prophecy to transform the future of individuals, whereas almost all Presbyterian pastors ask for prophecy to bring about a better world for all.

Kroesbergen-Kamps detects a classical Protestant tradition behind the concept of prophecy as addressing issues of social justice. In the concept of prophecy as focusing on individual problems even by the act of prophesying itself, she identifies an evangelical or Pentecostal theology, but she also links this to traditional African ways of connecting to the divine. In the Reformed Church in Zambia both concepts seem to co-exist, although a question put forward by RCZ-youths on their Facebook-page, suggests that they are leaning towards the concept of a prophet as a miracle-worker: "Why don’t we have prophets in

the RCZ?"

This is the concept of a prophet that is also described in Nelly Mwale and Joseph Chita’s contribution on the portrayal of prophecy in the Zambian media. They describe how, in their research on Zambia, the term prophet has been used for many different specialist roles in religion, both in African Traditional Religions and Christianity. The prophets they find described more and more in the newspapers, on TV and on websites of the Christian nation Zambia are, however, exclusively Christian prophets of the type of self-declared miracle-worker. Almost all prophets covered in the media are Pentecostal, and they are said to perform miraculous works such as predicting the future. Many news-reports on prophets, however, are attempts to unmask self-proclaimed prophets as fake. For example, sexual abuse is highlighted and warnings against the new prophets by the mainline-churches are voiced. Mwale and Chita summarize: False prophets have been depicted to be covetous and greedy, making business out of their followers and love to be revered. Yet, at the same time, in the media people are encouraged to continue to believe in prophecy, despite the fact that it is difficult to discern who is a true prophet, since accurate prediction of future events is not enough evidence that one is a true prophet.

Mwale and Chita’s report on the image of the prophet in the Zambian media shows us that in Zambian society at large today, the concept of a prophet as miracle-worker is dominant, but also challenged. Are all those new prophets who advertise on billboards along the road true prophets? Lukas Soko describes the challenges presented to Christianity in Southern Africa by globalization. Christianity as a cultural practice will continue to evolve and develop. Worldviews and values change. Soko gives as example that in the 1980’s watching television and listening to ‘worldly’ music was regarded as unethical, even calling someone in a loud voice was frowned upon. Nowadays, this has changed, stimulated by both local and global influences. Likewise, the new kind of prophecy that is now so widely advertised in the Zambian media, demands a response. Adding on to Mwale and Chita’s description, Soko shows that this new kind of prophecy is so omnipresent in the culture in which Christians in Southern Africa find themselves, that it cannot but put our long inherited denominational faith practices in question. In a similar vein Edwin Zulu speaks of a lack of internal renewal within the mainline churches and urges for adjustments to our present age. Zulu argues that because these new prophets have impacted greatly upon people – both negatively and positively – it is critical and urgent that mainline churches engage with them. Like their fellow Reformed pastors, as described by Kroesbergen-Kamps, Soko and Zulu seem to find themselves torn between the two concepts of prophecy: on the one hand, they want to hold on to classical Protestant tradition of prophecy, as most Presbyterian pastors seem to do, but, on the other hand, they feel forced to adjust to the inevitable change brought by the Pentecostal type of prophets that we see on billboards on every street corner in Zambia.

Friedrich de Wet compares the situation in Zambia with prophecy today in South Africa. Prophets of the miracle-worker type are present in South Africa as well, as, for example, Cas Wepener and Marcel Barnard’s contribution to this book attests to. De Wet describes this concept of prophecy as the idea of the prophet as healer, seer into the future and a holy link to the abundant gifts of God. In this connection, De Wet praises the increasing consciousness in Zambian society of real and potential harm of false and deceitful prophecy. However, De Wet also draws our attention to the prolific leaders such as Desmond Tutu and Alan Boesak who boldly spoke against Apartheid, who represent the other type of prophecy. But does this type of prophecy fighting for social justice still exist after Apartheid? Beside the question Why can’t we have prophets? asked by Zambia’s RCZ-youth, De Wet places the South African question Where have all the prophets gone?

Prophets of the miracle-worker-type are found at every street-corner, which raises the question how to discern which of those are true, and why we do not have prophets in our mainline churches. Prophets of the political activist-type were prominent during the fight against Apartheid, but where are they to be found now? Raising a similar concern Gideon van der Watt in his contribution notes some recent indications that the South African Council of Churches attempts to regain its prophetic voice in this sense, speaking against violence, crime and corruption. Moreover, Etienne de Villiers addresses the Accra Declaration against the capitalist economic system, and Wynand Retief looks for prophecy as social analysis in the sermons of students. However, this type of prophecy seems to be in a crisis of a very different kind as that of the sensational tendency that De Wet discerns in miracle-worker-prophets and is so susceptible to misuse. So many prophets of the miraculous healing and deliverance type pop up that they cannot all be true prophets. The prophets fighting for social justice on the other hand are hard to find.

Teddy Sakupapa describes the same two types of prophecy, and like Soko he urges mainline churches to engage in a dialogue with new prophets of today. He refers to the miracle-approach as neo-prophetism of African Pentecostalism, and traces its roots to both the Bible and the African Independent Churches. Following David Ngong, he notes many disturbing similarities between the African Traditional Religion and Pentecostal notions of salvation: both strive for healing, prosperity and success. Sakupapa speaks of a sort of prophetic craze among many Christians irrespective of church tradition and doctrine. Under its influence, in mainline churches as well more and more Pentecostal practices are introduced.

According to Sakupapa, the lack of attention for questions of social justice is a major weakness of the neo-prophetic movement. It does not address structural challenges in society which affect humans and the whole of creation negatively. He encourages what he calls ecumenical Protestants to enrich African neo-prophetism in this respect. Sakupapa quotes the World Council of Churches’ view of the church as mystery and prophetic sign of the Kingdom of God, and promotes ecumenical dialogue between mainline churches and the neo-prophetic ministries. Despite the many problems he notes with the miracle-working prophets, Sakupapa acknowledges the encouragement and hope that they offer to marginalized people. Sakupapa recognizes the big divide between the two concepts of prophecy, but he challenges both sides to learn from one another.

The fact that both miracle-workers and political activists use the title ‘prophet’ in itself, however, can hardly sustain such an ecumenical dialogue. Fortunately, the analysis in this book show there are more similarities, for example in their shared longing for a better life.

Shared longing

Mwale and Chita point at the socio-economic conditions in Southern Africa to explain the rise of Pentecostal prophets they observe in the Zambian media. They mention new and strange diseases, unemployment, childlessness, longing for marriages, promotions, and all forms of misfortunes. These difficult circumstances make people long to be re-living the Biblical times where the sick were healed, the blind were made to see, the deaf were made to hear, and the new prophets promise just that. As Hermen Kroesbergen mentions how in prophecy today people are promised an ever brighter future: wealth, prosperity and health are in store for everyone.

Edwin Zulu as well attributes the current high rise of prophetic movements to the difficult socio-political and economic circumstances in Zambia at the moment. Over 60 percent of the Zambians live below the poverty line and have, consequently, very uncertain futures. They are looking for a breakthrough towards a more secure and prosperous life. In addition to this, Zulu mentions the strong belief among Zambians in the existence of evil forces that intend to harm them, and are believed to be responsible for all misfortunes in people’s lives. He describes the striking similarity in the pattern that traditional ‘witch doctors’ and the new prophets follow to deal with the problems of their clients. Both promise deliverance from blockages by evil forces and a breakthrough to a life of prosperity.

De Wet notes the same clear resonance with the traditional African way of connecting with the abundance of life. Which is furthermore reflected in the observation, quoted by Kroesbergen-Kamps, that already the AIC prophets were filling the vacuum left by the missionary churches in combating barrenness, witchcraft, poverty and sickness. And Sakupapa refers to African religion in which salvation has to do with physical and immediate dangers that threaten individual or community survival, good health, and general prosperity or safety. The longing for a better life has fuelled the rise of the new prophets that promise miraculous healing, deliverance and prosperity.

Zulu describes shortly the history of the prosperity gospel which he envisions to be a major influence behind the upcoming new prophets. He notes the major hermeneutical problems attached to this message, and also how it is often mixed in with occultism. Yet, Zulu looks favourably upon the entrepreneurial spirit of the new prophetic ministries. The combination of preaching the word of God with motivational speeches on how to start a business may be just what is needed in the meagre economic circumstances of Southern Africa. People need to be given hope for the future, tools to come out of their poor situation, and encouragement wherever they are working to get out of poverty. This longing for a better life is affecting many in all churches today, and that is what the current prophetic movement is perceived to be addressing by preaching entrepreneurship.

From a different perspective, Cas Wepener and Marcel Barnard in their detailed description of prophecy in the context of a church service at the Zion Christian Church, emphasize that healing is most probably the main motivation for why people go to worship in Africa. To receive healing, was the straightforward answer to the question why people join their church. Healing needs to be seen holistically here and in broad terms, and as a combination of blessing, healing and protection. Wepener and Barnard refer to Allan Anderson who argues that African prophets, similar to prophets in the Old Testament, arise on the basis of the felt needs of African people. Their prophetic abilities are closely connected to their healing abilities. Wherever there is something awry in people’s lives, prophetic healing is seen as the answer.

The longing for a better life is a strong incentive to look for prophets. But is not a better life the dream of those prophets who fight for social justice just as well? As examples of the prophecy as political activism, Etienne de Villiers describes how both the Kairos Document [against Apartheid] and the Accra Declaration [against capitalism] provide examples of an understanding of prophecy in terms of a struggle against unjust systems. People are suffering, and therefore we need to read the signs of the time, condemn injustice and provide hope for a better future. De Villiers argues current prophets should look for effective ways of changing the unjust system of economic globalisation. What he has in mind may be very different in form from for example Zulu’s encouragement of an entrepreneurial spirit in the church, but the problem both authors address is the same: the dire economic circumstances in Southern Africa.

People want a better life than they have today. Wynand Retief follows Brueggemann’s suggestion that the offer of prophetic imagination is one that contradicts the taken-for-granted world around us. He describes how the dominant culture in Zambia refuses to face the dismal reality of poverty in the country, only recently in 2014 celebrating 50 years of independence as commemorating 50 years of prosperity. Retief admonishes preachers in this context to take a stance against this and do a proper social analysis: acknowledge the presence of poverty and be prophetic in providing hope for a genuinely better future!

Likewise D.T. Banda regards as the core of prophecy to inspire hope in the lives of the poor, and uplift their plight. Lameck Banda refers to Amanze who notes that prophets nowadays do tackle people’s main concern, namely to overcome the powers of evil, which are considered to be the source of all kinds of diseases, poverty, deprivation, misfortunes, bad luck, human suffering and ultimately death. The mainline churches should address these problems as well in developing an authentic kind of prophecy, Banda argues. And Gideon van der Watt speaks hopefully about a re-emerging prophetic voice in South Africa that speaks about violence, crime and corruption, moral degeneration in society, ecology and economy and the abuse of power. The longing for a better life is the driving force behind both the prophecy as miracle-work, and prophecy as political activism. And another aspect that both diverging concepts of prophecy share is their heavy relying on Old Testament examples, albeit that both emphasize different aspects in them.

Shared foundation in Old Testament

Most authors in this book build upon the examples of the Old Testament prophets in their analysis of prophecy today. In fact, both concepts of prophecy – as miracle-work, or as political activism – trace their legitimacy to these early examples of prophecy. The new prophets involved in miraculous healing and deliverance claim to continue the miracles performed by powerful men of God such as for example Elijah and Elisha, whereas those who expect prophets to fight for social justice see in such prophecy the same engagement for righteousness they see in for example Amos or Hosea.

Both sides try to emulate those great men of God from the Bible. Hermen Kroesbergen, however, notes how for the new prophets the important title ‘man of God’ itself does only have a limited Biblical backing. In the New Testament it is nearly absent, and in the Old Testament few others are referred to as ‘man of God’ except Elijah and Elisha. The same two prophets whose example backs the emphasis on miracles. And miracles do not prove anything, as Kroesbergen shows. Lameck Banda does acknowledge the Old Testament foundation for prophecy as consisting in miraculously predicting the future, but he adds that the Old Testament prophets proclaimed God’s word which revealed the divine will to the people, not just mere divination in the form of prediction of the future. In fact, Banda meticulously compares prophecy and divination, and concludes that many of the new prophets are in fact neo-diviners. Both prophets and diviners may be able to reveal a hidden past or accurately predict future events; however, in the Old Testament divination is clearly condemned as not being of God. Banda asks us to condemn neo-divination as well, pointing at the manipulation and materialism that is often involved in this practice. Van der Watt follows suit and encourages us to rediscover and regain the essence of the Old Testament prophets; the characteristic feature of their powerful message was their insistence on love, righteousness, and justice as a proper expression of Israel’s covenantal relationship with Yahweh. Both the prophets as powerful miracle-workers, and the prophets advocating social justice ask us to look at the Old Testament as supporting their perspective on prophecy.

Building upon Brueggemann’s analysis of Old Testament prophecy, Wynand Retief argues for more prophetic preaching. Retief’s search for a preacher’s ability to make a critical social analysis of the present context, detecting underlying ideologies and thereby identifying the dominant culture of the present day, mirrors how Brueggemann envisions the prophetic imagination as reflected in the Old Testament. However, Johanneke Kroesbergen-Kamps notes that Brueggemann rejects the view that Old Testament prophets were miraculous fortune or future tellers, but he dismisses as well the idea that prophets were a kind of political activists. She quotes Brueggemann refuting the common liberal assumption that the prophets were social activists who worked to establish social justice. It strikes me that the ancient prophets only rarely took up any concrete issue.

Regarding the distinct actions of the Old Testament prophets as the predominant point of reference for Christian thinking about prophecy Friedrich de Wet notes with Brueggemann that there are two types of prophetic