Global TV Horror

By Stacey Abbott and Lorna Jowett

The Horror genre has become one of the most popular genres of TV drama with the global success and fandom surrounding The Walking Dead, Supernatural and Stranger Things. Horror has always had a truly international reach, and nowhere is this more apparent than on television as explored in this provocative new collection looking at series from across the globe, and considering how Horror manifests in different cultural and broadcast/streaming contexts. Bringing together established scholars and new voices in the field, Global TV Horror examines historical and contemporary TV Horror from Australia, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, France, Iran, Japan, Spain, New Zealand, USA and the UK. It expands the discussion of TV Horror by offering fresh perspectives, examining new shows, and excavating new cultural histories, to render what has become so familiar – Horror on television – unfamiliar yet again.

• Language: English
• Publisher: University of Wales Press
• Release date: Mar 1, 2021
• ISBN: 9781786836960

Book preview

Global

TV HORROR

HORROR STUDIES

Series Editor

Xavier Aldana Reyes, Manchester Metropolitan University

Editorial Board

Stacey Abbott, Roehampton University

Linnie Blake, Manchester Metropolitan University

Harry M. Benshoff, University of North Texas

Fred Botting, Kingston University

Steven Bruhm, Western University

Steffen Hantke, Sogang University

Joan Hawkins, Indiana University

Agnieszka Soltysik Monnet, University of Lausanne

Bernice M. Murphy, Trinity College Dublin

Johnny Walker, Northumbria University

Preface

Horror Studies is the first book series exclusively dedicated to the study of the genre in its various manifestations – from fiction to cinema and television, magazines to comics, and extending to other forms of narrative texts such as video games and music. Horror Studies aims to raise the profile of Horror and to further its academic institutionalisation by providing a publishing home for cutting-edge research. As an exciting new venture within the established Cultural Studies and Literary Criticism programme, Horror Studies will expand the field in innovative and student-friendly ways.

Global

TV HORROR

EDITED BY STACEY ABBOTT AND LORNA JOWETT

© The Contributors, 2021

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing it in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright owner except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act. Applications for the copyright owner’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the University of Wales Press, University Registry, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3NS.

www.uwp.co.uk

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 978-1-78683-694-6

eISBN: 978-1-78683-696-0

The rights of The Contributors to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 79 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

The publisher has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for any external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Cover image © Shutterstock

Contents

Acknowledgements

Notes on Contributors

1. It’s Taking Over the Whole World

Global TV Horror, Then and Now

Stacey Abbott and Lorna Jowett

Part One: National Contexts

2. ‘Real’ Iranian Vampires

Television versus the Big Screen

Simon Bacon

3. ‘It’s Not Ghosts, It’s History’

The Sonic Tradition of British Horror Television

Mark Fryers

4. Terror Australis

The Wilderness Myth in TV’s Wolf Creek

Rebecca Janicker

5. Stories to Make You Think

The Horror of Daily Life under Francisco Franco’s Regime in Historias para No Dormir

Fernando Pagnoni Berns

6. Sleep, Little Baby. Cuca Is Coming for You.

Mom Went to the Field, and Dad Is Working Too

The Witch Cuca in Brazilian Folklore and Television

Laura Cánepa, Leandro Caraça and Lúcio Reis-Filho

Part Two: Forms and Aesthetics

7. Beyond the Masochist Pleasure Principle

The Subtle Gore of Les revenants

Jonas Green

8. Giving Kids Goosebumps

Uncanny Aesthetics, Cyclic Structures and Anti-didacticism in Children’s Horror Anthologies

Catherine Lester

9. As Raw As Flesh

Consuming Humans in TV Horror

Lorna Piatti-Farnell

Part Three: Industry

10. Driving Industrial Innovation

FOX International Channels and the Global Appeal of The Walking Dead

Stella Gaynor

11. Staking Claims or Sucking Up

Heartless, Nordic Twilight and the Cross-pollination of Danish and American TV Drama

Andreas Halskov

12. Video Game to Streaming Series

The Case of Castlevania on Netflix

E. Charlotte Stevens

13. Tracing Terror-Bytes

Ring: Saishusho as Japanese TV Horror, Online Transcultural J-Horror Fan Object and Digital Only-click Television

James Rendell

Conclusion: Transnationalism and TV Horror Fandom

A Conversation with Iain Robert Smith and Miranda Ruth Larsen

Stacey Abbott and Lorna Jowett

Notes/Works Cited

Acknowledgements

EDITED COLLECTIONS such as this book are a rewarding collaboration between the editors and their authors, and so our first thank you goes to our contributors, whose professionalism and passion for TV horror underpin the value of this book. They have been a pleasure to work with and a constant reminder that fans of horror are the nicest people. We would like to express our gratitude to Xavier Aldana Reyes for his enthusiasm for the project and its inclusion in the Horror Studies series (UWP). Thank you to Sarah Lewis at the University of Wales Press for her hard work and support, and to everyone at UWP for their help in making this book happen. Thank you to the anonymous peer reviewer for their insightful feedback.

Stacey would like to thank her family in Canada for their encouragement and indulgence of her horror and Gothic passions. Thank you to her husband and partner-in-crime Simon Brown for his never-ending support and shared loved of horror. Most importantly she would like to thank her co-editor Lorna Jowett for being an outstanding collaborator and for making the hard work of writing and editing so much fun. This conversation started about their shared enthusiasm for Near Dark and vampires at a conference many, many years ago, and it continues through every project they undertake. Long may the conversation continue – ‘Let’s go to work.’

Lorna would like to think all the friends, family and colleagues who have supported her, especially in the last few, rather trying, years. A massive shout out is also due to Stacey Abbott, fantastic co-conspirator and all-round Champion. Long may the conversation continue – ‘I wish to do more violence.’

Notes on Contributors

Stacey Abbott is a Reader in Film and Television Studies at the University of Roehampton. Her main areas of research are Gothic and horror film and television, with a particular focus on the evolving mythologies of screen monsters. She has written extensively on Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Angel and Supernatural, as well as editing The Cult TV Book (2010). She is the author of Celluloid Vampires (2007), Angel: TV Milestone (2009), Undead Apocalypse: Vampires and Zombies in the 21st Century (2016) and the BFI Classic on Near Dark (2020). She is the co-author, with Lorna Jowett, of TV Horror: Investigating the Dark Side of the Small Screen (2013) and co-edited, with Jowett and Michael Starr, a special issue of Horror Studies examining the vampire on television. She is now immersed in a new project on horror and animation.

Simon Bacon is an independent scholar based in Poznań, Poland. He has edited books on various subjects including Gothic: A Reader (2018), Horror: A Companion (2019), and Monsters: A Companion (forthcoming). He has published monographs on, Becoming Vampire: Difference and the Vampire in Popular Culture (2016), Dracula as Absolute Other: The Troubling and Distracting Specter of Stoker’s Vampire on Screen (2019), Eco-Vampires: The Vampire as Environmentalist and Undead Eco-activist (2020), and is currently working on Invasion of Vampires from Another World: The Cinematic Alien Progeny of War of the Worlds and Dracula.

Fernando Gabriel Pagnoni Berns (PhD student) works as Professor at the Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Facultad de Filosofía y Letras (Argentina). He teaches courses on international horror film. He is director of ‘Grite’, the research group on horror cinema, and has published chapters in the books To See the Saw Movies: Essays on Torture Porn and Post-9/11 Horror, edited by John Wallis, Critical Insights: Alfred Hitchcock, edited by Douglas Cunningham, Dreamscapes in Italian Cinema, edited by Francesco Pascuzzi, Reading Richard Matheson: A Critical Survey, edited by Cheyenne Mathews, Gender and Environment in Science Fiction, edited by Christy Tidwell, The Films of Delmer Daves, edited by Matthew Carter and Doubles and Hybrids in Latin American Gothic, edited by Antonio Alcalá (Routledge), among others. He has authored a book about Spanish horror TV series Historias para no Dormir (Universidad de Cádiz, 2020) and has edited a book on the Frankenstein bicentennial. He is currently editing a book on director James Wan and another on the Italian giallo film.

Laura Loguercio Cánepa, PhD in Multimedia (Unicamp, Brazil, 2008), is Professor on the Post-Graduate Programme in Communication at Anhembi Morumbi University (Brazil) since 2009 and Visiting Research Fellow at the University of Leeds (2019). She has published several works on Brazilian horror films, including ‘Erotic Brazilian Movies of Female Killers’ (in E Pornô, Tem Pornô? A Panorama of Brazilan Porn, edited by Mariana Baltar in 2018); ‘José Mojica Marins versus Coffin Joe: Auteurism and Stardom in Brazilian Cinema’, in Stars and Stardom in Brazilian Cinema, edited by Tom Bergfelder, Lisa Shaw and João Luiz Vieira, 2017); ‘Panorama histórico del horror en el cine brasileño (in Horrofílmico – Aproximaciones al cine de terror en Latinoamérica y el Caribe, edited by Rosana Díaz Zambrana e Patricia Tome, 2012).

Leandro Cesar Caraça, Master of Science in Multimedia at Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Brazil). is a film historian. His Master’s dissertation addressed the topic of Brazilian films of the 1950s. His current reasearch investigates Brazilian exploitation films.

Mark Fryers. Since submitting his PhD on British film, television and cultural history, Dr Mark Fryers has published numerous articles and chapters on film and television scholarship including in the Journal of Popular Television and on such topics as the British costume drama, British maritime film and television, on Jaws and the nautical spaces of death and on youth horror. He has also contributed chapters on global folklore and animated films and submitted another on constructions of identity in British children’s television. He is currently Associate Tutor in Film, Television and Media at UEA and previously taught at NYU London.

Dr Stella Gaynor is an Associate Lecturer at the University of Salford and Visiting Lecturer at Liverpool John Moores University. Her PhD was an industrial study of contemporary horror TV drama in the US, and she has contributed to the Revenant Journal: Critical Studies of the Supernatural, and she has a chapter in the forthcoming collection Zombies and Theology. Stella is a regular blogger for Critical Studies in Television Online, and she will always find a way to shoehorn The Walking Dead into any conversation.

Jonas Green is a PhD candidate at the department for PsychoSocial Studies, Birkbeck, University of London. His research focuses on gender, sexuality and the complex relations of fluidity and rigidity in subject positions. The theoretical tools that he uses to rethink these questions are borrowed from Judith Butler, Luce Irigaray, Juliet Mitchell and Bracha Ettinger. He is deeply interested in the body and how the corporal functions not only as a matter upon which meaning is inscribed, but as a resonating matter in (often conflictual) dialogue with linguistic meaning. In his thesis, he critically engages the above-mentioned theories with close readings of films by François Ozon and theories for bodily engaged viewers.

Andreas Halskov (b. 1981) holds an MA in Film Studies from Copenhagen University. He works as a film/TV expert in different media and as a curator of film-historical screenings at the two biggest art house theatres in Denmark, besides being an editor of the scholarly film journal 16:9. Halskov has published articles in journals like Series, Short Film Studies and Filmmaker Magazine, and is a regular contributor to CST. He has co-written and co-edited four Danish anthologies on film and television. He has also written a monograph on David Lynch, co-written a book about vampire films and written two peer-reviewed books about modern TV drama (TV Peaks, 2015) and serialization. Currently, he is working at an interview-based book about sound design in film and television drama, and recently he co-created a five-part documentary series about the American TV landscape (TV Travels, VES/HBO Nordic, 2019).

Rebecca Janicker is a Senior Lecturer in film and media studies at the University of Portsmouth. She received her PhD in American Studies from the University of Nottingham in 2014. She is the author of The Literary Haunted House: Lovecraft, Matheson, King and the Horror in Between (2015) and the editor of Reading ‘American Horror Story’: Essays on the Television Franchise (2017). Her publications focus on Gothic and horror in film, TV and comics and she is editing a collection on the scientist in popular culture.

Lorna Jowett is a Reader in Television Studies at the University of Northampton, UK. She has published many articles on television, film and popular culture, with a particular focus on gender and genre. She is author of Dancing with the Doctor: Dimensions of Gender in the Doctor Who Universe (2017), Sex and the Slayer: A Gender Studies Primer for the Buffy Fan (2005), co-author with Stacey Abbott of TV Horror (2013) and editor of Joss Whedon vs. the Horror Tradition (2018) and Time on TV (2016). Her research is currently engaged with issues of representation and inequality in the television industry.

Miranda Ruth Larsen is a PhD candidate in the Information, Technology and Society in Asia programme at the University of Tokyo. She is the author of ‘Desktop Horror and Captive Cinema’ online at Henry Jenkins’s Confessions of an Aca-Fan (curated by William Proctor), ‘We literally could not get out of here if we wanted to — Dark Legends in Found Footage and Paranormal Reality TV’, in Jackson Cooper’s upcoming anthology [REC] Terror, and ‘Don’t Adjust Your Life to Mine — Moon Child, Homoeroticism, and the Vampire as Multifacted Other’, in Cait Coker’s upcoming anthology The Global Vampire in Popular Culture.

Catherine Lester is Lecturer in Film and Television at the University of Birmingham. Prior to this, she was a teaching assistant and PhD candidate at the University of Warwick, where she completed her PhD thesis on horror films for children in Hollywood cinema. This work is the basis of her forthcoming monograph, Horror Films for Children: Fear and Pleasure in American Cinema (Bloomsbury). The intersection between children’s culture and the horror genre continues to be her primary research interest, with recent and ongoing projects including a chapter on villainy and gender in Frozen (in the collection Discussing Disney, ed. Amy M. Davis) and a symposium on the 1978 film adaptation of Watership Down.

Professor Lorna Piatti-Farnell PhD, is director of the Popular Culture Research Centre at Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand. She is the president of the Gothic Association of New Zealand and Australia (GANZA). Her research interests lie at the intersection of contemporary popular culture and cultural history, with a focus on Gothic Studies. She has published widely in these areas, and is author of multiple single-authored books, including The Vampire in Contemporary Popular Literature (Routledge, 2014) and Consuming Gothic: Food and Horror in Film (Palgrave, 2017). Professor Piatti-Farnell has also edited a number of scholarly volumes, including the recent Gothic Afterlives: Remakes of Horror in Contemporary Media (Rowman & Littlefield, 2019).

Lúcio Reis-Filho (PhD, University Anhembi Morumbi) is a film critic and historian specialising in the relations between cinema, history and literature. Focusing on the horror genre, he has written essays about zombies in contemporary Brazilian and Latin American films, published in journals such as the SFRA Review and horror-themed anthologies. He has also contributed a biographical study about George Romero to a Brazilian anthology on world independent cinema. Currently, he researches Brazilian folklore and the oeuvre of the American writer H. P. Lovecraft.

Dr James Rendell is a lecturer in creative industries at the University of South Wales. His research largely focuses on audience engagement with, and digital participatory cultures that form around, screen media. He has written for the Transformative Works and Cultures, Participations: Journal of Audience and Reception Studies, Visual Studies, New Review of Film and Television Studies and the East Asian Journal of Popular Culture. His forthcoming monograph Transmedia Terrors in Post-TV Horror: Digital Distribution, Abject Spectrums and Participatory Culture is to be published by Amsterdam University Press.

Iain Robert Smith is Senior Lecturer in Film Studies at King’s College London. He is author of The Hollywood Meme: Transnational Adaptations in World Cinema (Edinburgh University Press, 2016) and co-editor of the collections Transnational Film Remakes (with Constantine Verevis, Edinburgh University Press, 2017) and Media Across Borders (with Andrea Esser and Miguel Bernal-Merino, Routledge, 2016). In 2018, he was selected as an AHRC/BBC New Generation Thinker.

E. Charlotte Stevens is a Lecturer in Media at Birmingham City University. She has published on fanvids, videogame fan histories, screen vampires, and poetic television documentaries on the BBC. Fanvids, a monograph based on her PhD work, is forthcoming from Amsterdam University Press. She is currently working on fanzines from the 1980s, exploring how videotape informed television fans’ viewing practices and discussions of series.

1

It’s Taking Over the Whole World

Global TV Horror, Then and Now

Stacey Abbott and Lorna Jowett

TV Horror – What’s Changed?

WHEN WE WROTE our book TV Horror , published in 2013, one of our aims was to challenge the old adage that horror and television were incompatible, by demonstrating an established legacy of horror from the early days of television to the contemporary landscape. Considering issues surrounding TV production, broadcast, aesthetics, narrative structure and genre hybridity, we wanted to show how horror and television were indelibly linked. Since the book’s publication, there have been many changes in the TV landscape. We never imagined, when we first had the idea for the project, at least ten years before TV Horror was published, that there would be so much TV available in the second decade of the twenty-first century, never mind so much horror television. We could never have anticipated that AMC’s zombie apocalypse series The Walking Dead (2010–), mentioned in the book, would score the most watched cable TV episode ever in the US (season 5 premiere; Bibel 2014); would be nominated for (to date) 138 awards, winning 69; and would be airing in 129 countries across the globe, in 33 different languages. Another horror TV series we discussed, Supernatural (USA, WB/CW, 2005–20), has wrapped in 2020 after fifteen seasons, having become the longest-running continuous US live action fantasy TV series, with season 11 garnering fans from four continents.

The incompatibility of television and horror seems hard to imagine now. As early as 2014, Ron Hogan in Den of Geek was asking, ‘Is this the golden age of TV horror?’, noting a shift in programming with series such as Hemlock Grove (2013–15), Hannibal (2013–15), Penny Dreadful (2014–16) and The Walking Dead appearing across network, cable channels, pay-TV and streaming services (2014). Horror in these shows seemed increasingly prominent, each featuring graphic body horror and showcasing the talent of prominent special make-up effects teams (Mindwarp FX, Team FX, KNB EFX Group Inc.), diegetically and extra-diegetically through news reports, production publications and vlogs. In 2019, Graeme Virtue proclaimed ‘TV horror a screaming success’, arguing that the success of twenty-first-century horror cinema, ‘the only backstop against the superhero hegemony’, has led to a ‘trickle down effect’, filling television screens with ‘would-be chillers’: Ash vs The Evil Dead (2015–18), Scream Queens (2015–16), The Haunting of Hill House (2018–), The Strain (2014–17), The Terror (2018–), The Passage (2019), NOS 4A2 (2019–) and Event Horizon (2020).

The combination of the expansion of television across a growing number of providers and platforms, including online and streaming services, developments in digital technologies, a relaxation of censorship and a resurgence of fantasy genres in Western popular culture (Lord of the Rings, Harry Potter, Twilight, Game of Thrones), generally all lent weight and momentum to the horde of horror TV series available over the last ten years. Additionally, the horror genre on film has similarly seen a proliferation of production and a growing popularity with mainstream audiences and press, inciting many critics to extol, as with TV, the value of twenty-first-century horror cinema (Rose 2016; Bramesco et al. 2016). This seeming expansion of horror cinema, as noted by Virtue, may have contributed to the visibility of horror on television, although it could similarly signal the influence of television on the big screen as the two media become increasingly synergistically entwined. For instance, Blumhouse Productions, the home of mainstream indie horror such as The Paranormal Activity and The Purge franchises, Halloween 2018 (David Gordon Green, USA, 2018), and Get Out (Jordan Peele, USA, 2017), has been moving into television with the Purge television series (2018–) and the Southern Gothic horror series Sharp Objects (2018), signalling a recognition that television is increasingly a natural home to horror (Travers 2019).

What is often absent, however, in these online discussions of TV horror is a global perspective, with lists of the best horror on television primarily coming from the USA, UK and Canada. Similarly, our work for TV Horror largely focused on English-language television, as did the work by Helen Wheatley (2006) and Matt Hills (2005) on Gothic and horror TV respectively. In TV Horror we mentioned French miniseries Belphégor (1965), but although Belphégor, itself based on a novel, underwent several adaptations, including a French animated series in 2001, it was not readily available to us for study. We did include the Danish TV series Riget (Kingdom, 1994, 1997), though this was probably available because of the involvement of director, auteur and enfant terrible Lars von Trier, who co-created the series with Morten Arnfred, and, perhaps, as tribute to its lasting impact on Danish television (see Hasklov in this volume). We included Canadian vampire series Forever Knight (1992–6) and Blood Ties (2007), but their inclusion is consistent with the book’s primarily English-language focus and signalled the growing popularity – and influence – of the vampire genre on American and British television. Derek Johnston’s Haunted Seasons, while similarly focused on British and American television, does include a brief discussion of traditions of seasonal horror on South Korean television with programmes such as Jeonseoleuigohyang (Hometown Legends, 2008–9), Gumiho: Yeowoonuyidyan (Grudge: Revolt of the Gumiho, 2010) and Korean Ghost Stories (2008–9) (2015, pp. 90–2).

Alongside the growth of horror on television, has been increased demand for and circulation of international productions. Recent years have given us the moody and atmospheric Les revenants (The Returned, France, 2012–); adaptations of novel series such as Bitten (Canada, 2014–16); contemporary re-imaginings of queer horror classics like web series Carmilla (Canada, 2014–); a visceral zombie pandemic within a lush period drama in Kingdom (South Korea, 2018–); global responses to teen vampire texts like Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003); and Twilight (2008) in the form of My Date with a Vampire (Hong Kong 1999–2004); Ponti Anak Remaja (Ponti the Teenage Vampire, Malaysia 2010); and Scandi series Heartless (Denmark, 2014); films remade as TV, such as Wolf Creek (Australia, 2016–); original Amazon series like Tokyo Vampire Hotel (Japan, 2017–); one-off miniseries such as Au-delà des Murs (Beyond the Walls, France/Belgium, 2016); and Netflix animated series Castlevania (US, 2017–) based on a series of Japanese video games. Horror on television shows no signs of abating, and more and more global productions are reaching audiences as national boundaries are eroded by digital technologies.

The time is ripe to revisit TV horror from a global perspective. This edited collection can, therefore, be seen as a follow-up to our previous work, and in it we and our contributors aim to consider what television on a global scale brings to our understanding of horror and how the genre is adapted to suit different national, cultural and industrial contexts, exploring different fears, anxieties and cultural understandings of horror. Certain chapters in this collection seek to consider how global horror conventions are reframed within a specific national context such as the re-imagining of the figure of the vampire in Iran. Others seek to bring local indigenous traditions to light, such as the cultural evolution of the Cuca, a figure from Brazilian folklore, in literature, music, film, TV and digital media. Together these approaches provide insight into the value placed on horror in different cultural contexts and consider how horror circulates on both national and international levels. The collection also seeks to position discussions of TV horror within a context of global television production and distribution, for instance, considering the international distribution of The Walking Dead by Fox alongside Netflix’s global streaming services and ‘Digital Only-click’ online access to spin-off TV series such as the Japanese Ring: Saishusho (1999).

One of the major changes to television in the last twenty years has been the rise of VoD (View on Demand) and streaming services. While Netflix and Amazon Prime Video are two of the biggest, and have come to dominate global markets, new streaming services are springing up, offering either more niche (Rakuten TV, Spuul, CrunchyRoll) or more fiercely competitive (new services CBS All Access, NBC Universal, Disney+) content. A range of access technologies are also now available (AppleTV, Roku) and in addition alternative distribution methods have a role to play in the circulation of global TV horror (YouTube, Vimeo). As with TV horror more generally, the presence of the genre on international television is not entirely new, and essays in this volume demonstrate that countries such as Spain, Brazil and Japan have established histories of horror on the small screen. The globalisation of contemporary television has, however, fuelled horror production, as evidenced by the increasing visibility of particular subgenres, such as vampire and zombie horror. Furthermore, digital technologies mean that TV horror productions have greater potential to be internationally accessible.

This collection offers new perspectives on the international diversity of TV horror, historically as well as in the contemporary streaming era. Horror has a long pedigree in many countries, from Australian Gothic to J- and K-horror, and television in those countries has national and cultural inflections that have shaped what TV horror means, the form it takes and the audiences it attracts. As part of its massive expansion Netflix has commissioned or acquired international TV products (Dark (German), Ghoul (English/Hindi), The Protector (Turkish), Diablero (Mexican/Spanish language), Always a Witch (Colombia/Spanish language), Jinn (Arabic), Typewriter (Hindi)), many of which air in either subtitled or dubbed versions. Netflix’s purpose is, of course,