The Economy of a Norse Settlement in the Outer Hebrides: Excavations at Mounds 2 and 2A Bornais, South Uist

By Niall Sharples

This book explores the economic evidence for the settlement at Bornais on South Uist. It reports in detail on the large assemblages of material found during the excavations at mounds 2 and 2A. There is important evidence for craft activity, such as bone and antler working and this includes the only comb making workshop from a rural settlement in Britain. A large proportion of the copper alloy, bone and antler assemblages comprise pieces of personal adornment and provide important information on the dress and thereby social relations within the settlement occupation. There is a large assemblage of iron tools and fittings, which provides important information on the activities taking place at the settlement. The information derived from the artefact assemblages is complemented by that provided by the ecofactual material. Large amounts of animal, fish and bird bones plus carbonised plant remains provide detailed information on agricultural practices, and the processing, preparation and consumption of foodstuffs. It is clear that the Norse inhabitants of the settlement had access to a much richer variety of resources than had been exploited before the Viking colonisation of the region. The settlement also had a significantly wider range of connections; material culture indicates contacts to the south with the Irish Sea ports and Bristol, and to the north with Shetland and the Viking homelands of Norway. The evidence produced by these excavations is exceptional and provides an unparalleled opportunity to explore medieval life in the Scandinavian kingdoms of Western Britain.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Oxbow Books
• Release date: Nov 23, 2020
• ISBN: 9781789255393

Book preview

The Economy of a Norse Settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Excavations at Mounds 2 and 2A, Bornais, South Uist

The Economy of a Norse Settlement in the Outer Hebrides

Excavations at Mounds 2 and 2A, Bornais, South Uist

edited by

Niall Sharples

With contributions by

J Best, J Bond, B Cartwright, E Casanova, D Challinor, A Clarke, L Cramp, O Davies, A Davies-Barrett, I Dennis, S Evans, R Evershed, A Forster, P Forward, C Freer, I Freestone, G Gaunt, J Griffith, M Hall, K Harding, T Horne, C Ingrem, J R Jones, R Jones, M Law, J Light, R Madgwick, J Mulville, A Pannett, J Peake, A Powell, M Redknap, C Riley, A Rowe, N Sharples, R Smith, J Summers, N Thew, K Waddington, H Wickstead, G Williams and T P Young

Published in the United Kingdom in 2021 by

OXBOW BOOKS

The Old Music Hall, 106–108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JE

and in the United States by

OXBOW BOOKS

1950 Lawrence Road, Havertown, PA 19083

© Oxbow Books, Niall Sharples and the individual authors 2021

Hardcover Edition: ISBN 978-1-78925-538-6

Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78925-539-3 (epub)

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020945164

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Front cover: A view of an abandoned plough on the coastal plain of South Uist with Hecla in the background Back cover: Two copper alloy keys recovered during the excavation of mound 2A

Contents

Illustrations

Tables

List of Contributors

1The excavations at Bornais – N Sharples

Introduction – N Sharples

The history of the excavations – N Sharples

The stratigraphic sequence in mound 2 – O Davies and N Sharples

The stratigraphic sequence in mound 2A – K Waddington and N Sharples

The chronological sequence – N Sharples

The research focus of this volume – N Sharples

Acknowledgements – N Sharples

2Site activities: the artefact assemblages

Introduction – N Sharples and R Smith

Manufacturing evidence – N Sharples

Copper alloy – R Smith and N Sharples

Lead – R Smith and N Sharples

Iron – R Smith

Bone waste – R Smith and N Sharples

Antler waste – R Smith and N Sharples

Organisation of comb manufacture – R Smith and N Sharples

Horn – R Smith and N Sharples

Stone tool manufacture – A Clarke

Flint – A Pannett

Pumice – R Smith and N Sharples

Clay mould – N Sharples

Slag – T Young

Conclusion – N Sharples

Vessels – N Sharples

The ceramic assemblage – N Sharples and K Harding

An experiment in the construction and use of ceramic platters – C Freer

Organic residues from Late Iron Age and Norse pottery – L Cramp, E Casanova and R Evershed

Steatite vessels – A Forster

Copper-alloy vessels – R Smith and N Sharples

Iron vessels – R Smith and N Sharples

Cetacean pot lids – R Smith

Currency and exchange

Coins – G Williams

Weights – T Horne and R Smith

Balance component – T Horne and R Smith

Hacksilver? – T Horne

Personal Objects – R Smith and N Sharples

Composite combs – N Sharples, R Smith and C Riley

Pins – A Rowe, R Smith and N Sharples

Other dress accessories – R Smith and N Sharples, with A Forster

Utilised tine tips – N Sharples and R Smith, with H Wickstead

Decorated objects – N Sharples and R Smith

Gaming pieces – M Hall, N Sharples and R Smith

Musical instruments – R Smith

Weapons – P Parkes, R Smith and N Sharples

The distribution of personal objects – N Sharples

Tools – R Smith and N Sharples

Metalworking tools – R Smith and N Sharples

Woodworking tools – R Smith and N Sharples

Leatherworking tools – R Smith and N Sharples

Agricultural and fishing tools – R Smith and N Sharples

Household activities – R Smith and N Sharples

Tools for textile production – R Smith and N Sharples with B Cartwright

Miscellaneous bone and antler tools – R Smith and N Sharples

Miscellaneous stone tools – A Clarke

The distribution of tools – N Sharples

Fittings – R Smith and N Sharples

Architectural features – S Evans

Structural fittings – R Smith and N Sharples

Decorative fittings – R Smith and N Sharples

Horse fittings – R Smith

Other iron fittings – R Smith and N Sharples

Miscellaneous objects – R Smith and N Sharples

The distribution of the structural fittings – N Sharples

3Site activities: the biological evidence

Introduction – N Sharples

Archaeobotanical remains – J R Summers and J M Bond

Crops/domestic taxa

Chaff

Wild taxa

Comparative analysis of floors and middens

Statistical analysis

Summary

Charcoal – D Challinor

The bird bone – J Best

Taphonomy

Anatomical representation

Domestic Birds

Age

Season

Fish preparation and consumption – C Ingrem

Herring

Saithe, cod, hake and other gadoid fish

Cetacean bone – S Evans

Methodology

Species by mound and block

Skeletal elements

Site activities

Bone as fuel

Small species and meat utility

Worked bone

Animal bone – C Ingrem and A Powell

Taphonomy

Anatomical representation of major terrestrial species

Spatial analysis

Conclusion

Human bone – A Davies-Barrett

Conclusion – N Sharples

4Resource exploitation: the bioarchaeological evidence

Introduction – N Sharples

Fish – S Evans and C Ingrem

Herring

Saithe, cod, hake and other gadoid fish

Conclusion

Sea mammals – S Evans and C Ingrem

Procurement of cetaceans

Late Iron Age

Norse period

Shellfish – M Law

Results

Conclusion

Crab – J Light

Results

Conclusion

Land snails – N Thew and M Law

Methods

Results

Discussion

Birds – J Best

Seabirds

Shore birds

The machair

Moorland

Small vertebrate fauna – A Powell

Discussion

Animal management – C Ingrem

Age and sex

Size

Conclusion

Animal management and marine resource use: the stable isotope evidence – J R Jones, R Madgwick and J Mulville

Materials and methods

Results and discussion

Comparisons with other Norse sites

Conclusions

A sequential multi-isotopic analysis of Norse Cattle teeth – J Griffith and J Mulville

Incremental stable isotopic analysis

Methodology

Results

Discussion

Conclusion

Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond

Barley

Oat

Flax

Wheat

Large legumes

Wild taxa on the machair

Rye

Hay

Wild and gathered taxa

Trees – D Challinor

Conclusion – N Sharples

5Resource exploitation: inorganic materials

Introduction – N Sharples

The stone – N Sharples

The flint – A Pannett and N Sharples

Slate – N Sharples

The geological sources of the whetstones – G Gaunt

Other imported stones – N Sharples

Steatite sources – A Forster and R Jones

The ceramics – N Sharples

An imported cooking pot – M Redknap with D Brown

The iron knives and structural Iron – P Forward

The blades

The structural iron

Provenance of the ferrous metalwork

The copper alloys – M Davis (based on a dissertation by K Hopkins)

Glass analysis – J R N Peake and I C Freestone

Methods

Results

Discussion

Conclusion

Conclusion – N Sharples

6Discussion

Introduction – N Sharples

The exploitation of the landscape – N Sharples

The machair

Coastal exploitation

Exploiting the sea

Moorland settlement

Settlement rhythms and taskscapes – N Sharples

Landscape orientation

Cosmologies

Change through time in the agricultural economy – N Sharples

Late Iron Age

Early Norse period

Middle Norse period

Late Norse period

Archaeobotanical remains – J R Summers and J M Bond

The arable economy at Bornais in its regional setting

Trade and exchange

The long-term trajectory of arable cultivation in the Bornais area

Animal bone – J Mulville

Birds – J Best

Fish – C Ingrem

Material modifications – N Sharples

Stone

Wood, bone and antler

Ceramics, metals and glass

The wider context – N Sharples

Cille Pheadair and Bornais

The Northern isles

Conclusion – N Sharples

Viking colonisation

1266 and all that

The end of the settlement

7Bibliography

8Appendix 1 Artefact catalogue – R Smith and N Sharples, with A Clarke, A Forster, M Hall and g Williams

Bone, antler and horn

Copper alloy

Iron

Lead

Silver

Ceramics

Glass

Stone

Pumice

9Appendix 2 A list of the illustrated ceramics – K Harding and N Sharples

Illustrations

Chapter 1

1A plan of the mounds at Bornais showing the areas excavated and the location of the site on the Western Isles

2An outline plan of the excavated area on mound 2 showing the three principal houses: pink House 1, blue House 2, brown House 3

3A diagram illustrating the stratigraphic relationships of the different blocks on mound 2

4An outline plan of the different phases of activity on mound 2A

AThe Early Norse cultivation marks (GAA)

BThe Middle Norse structures (GBA, GBB, GBD)

CLate Norse House 12 (GEA)

DLate Norse House 13 (GED) and ancillary structure 5 (GCA)

ELate Norse House 14 (GEG) and ancillary structure 6 (GCC)

FLate Norse House 15 (GCE) and ancillary structure 6 (GEI)

5A plan of the different areas excavated on mound 2A

6A diagram illustrating the stratigraphic relationships of the different blocks on mound 2A

7A simplified plan of the activity on mound 2 and mound 2A in the Early, Middle and Late Norse periods

Chapter 2

8Bronze ingot 4925

9A selection of copper-alloy sheet and strip fragments showing the general character of the assemblage

10 Bar charts showing the distribution of various categories of copper-alloy scrap. Left the variation between mounds 2 and 2A. Right the chronological variations

11 A representative selection of the lead waste: bar 5512; rod 3121; small fragment 5267; scrap 1785, 2118, 2753 6971; object 4969; coiled strip 3041, 4432; folded sheet 2978, 3195, 3588

12 Bar charts showing the distribution of the different categories of lead waste. Top the variation between mounds 2 and 2A. Bottom the chronological variations

13 A histogram showing the length of the iron strips

14 A scatter diagram showing the dimensions of the iron sheet fragments

15 A selection of iron sheet fragments

16 Bar charts showing the distribution of the different categories of iron waste from mounds 2 and 2A by block

17 A bar chart showing the distribution of iron waste by mound

18 A detailed view of the roughly shaped pin head 3649

19 A representative selection of bone-working debris from the production of bone pins: splinter with score marks 7521, 7559, 7993; scored long bone 7564; pin roughout 3492, 3542, 3649, 3813, 4016, 4157, 4198, 4936, 4980, 8642; pig fibula pin roughout 8630; splinter 7567; splinter with chopped end 7505, 7519, 8039, 8051

20 A bar chart showing the distribution of debris from the production of bone pins by mound

21 Bar charts showing the distribution of debris from the production of bone pins from each mound by phase

22 A selection of worked whale bone (note 4044 and 4029 are also illustrated on Figure 35 )

23 Worked whale bone plates 3339 and 3401

24 A diagram of an antler showing the various component parts that were required for comb production

25 A selection of primary antler debris: burr 2727, 7563; beam 4270; junction 4030, 6763; tine 3075, 4031, 6134

26 A histogram showing the size of the antler burrs from Bornais in relation to the assemblage from Hamwic (Riddler and Trazska-Nartowski 2003, 66)

27 A scatter diagram showing the length and breadth of the antler burrs

28 Antler burr and tine 6128, showing heavy gnawing of the beam and brow tine

29 Antler burr and tine 3833, which has been gnawed and then burnt

30 Antler burr and tine 2718 showing the saw marks where the beam was removed

31 Antler burrs 2952 and 3168 showing the saw marks where the beam was removed

32 A selection of antler tines showing three sawn examples (5851, 2733, 3513) on the left and three chopped examples (3559, 3758, 6592) on the right. The scale is indicative only because of perspective error, consult the catalogue for the dimensions

33 A selection of tine sections (1480, 2852, 3338, 3822, 2311, 1827, 6419) that could be used to make handles. The scale is indicative only because of perspective error, consult the catalogue for the dimensions

34 A selection of antler segments (3861, 3410, 2758, 2757, 2890, 4381, 2276, 2317, 4041, 2321) that were probably comb-making debris

35 A selection of secondary antler and whale bone debris: 2276, 4018, 4035, 5164, 7532 segments; 3363, 4045, 2216 sideplate blanks; 2850, 2875, 3136, 3317, 3416, 4037, 4042, 4383, 4384, 4833, 5630, 5671 toothplate blanks; 2747, 3320 offcuts; 4029, 4044 are whale bone blanks (the whale bone was also illustrated in Figure 22 )

36 A histogram showing the lengths of the antler segments

37 A selection of shavings from the antler comb making workshop

38 A selection of comb toothplate blanks. The scale is indicative only because of perspective error, consult the catalogue for the dimensions

39 Three toothplate blanks (4383, 5630, 4384) designed for double sided combs. The scale is indicative only because of perspective error, consult the catalogue for the dimensions

40 A scatter plot showing the length and breadth of the antler blanks, demonstrating the difference between sideplate and toothplate blanks, and offcuts

41 A bar chart showing the chronological distribution of the comb making debris from mounds 2 and 2A

42 A bar chart showing the character of the antler waste assemblage from the ancillary buildings (GC) and the surrounding middens (GD)

43 The distribution of the comb-making debris in mound 2A. The bulk of the debris lies within ancillary structure 6 (GCD), and the middens to the east (GDC), which may be contemporary with House 13 (GED) to the southeast, though there is no conclusive evidence for this association

44 A horn core (3636) with clearly visible cut marks where the horn was removed

45 The tip of horn core 3881 which has been sawn off, possibly for further use

46 Spindle whorl 6204 which has an unfinished perforation, suggests spindle whorl production on site.

47 A histogram showing the nature of the flint assemblage in the stratigraphic blocks with reasonable flint assemblages

48 A selection of flint: cores 1371, 1745, 4493, 6599, 7017, 7103; chunk 2577; scraper 1751, 2238, 2335, 6062; notched flake 1724; edge retouch 1345; denticulate edge 2486A; retouched chunk 2486B; blade 7649; backed bladelet 7148; arrowheads 2466, 3684, 7290

49 Pumice fragment 5924 showing the grooved wear patterns that indicate it was used to smooth pins

50 The clay mould 3501

51 A section through a large cake of fuel ash slag (2377, 717, GBG)

52 A large cake of fuel ash slag from context 874 (GBG)

53 A selection of the significant Late Iron Age vessels

54 A selection of Norse Plain bowls with sagging bases

55 A selection of Norse Plain bowls with flat bases

56 A selection of Norse bowls with unusual features, including a large thick-walled vessel with slashed rim decoration from Early Norse House 1

57 A selection of everted, flared and dot incised rims

58 Various Norse plain bowl rims, expanded rims and pierced rims

59 A selection of upright and incurving rims

60 A selection of some of the larger platter sherds and some unusual patterned base sherds from flat based bowls

61 A drawing and photograph of platter 3846 from the infill of House 2 (BD)

62 A photograph of platter showing perforations

63 A close up of the sections through two platter sherds showing fine (top) and coarse (bottom) tempering

64 A selection of three platter sherds showing the variation in colour and surface treatments

65 The six small experimental platters after construction

66 Making a platter:

AThe proportions of clay and temper used in experimental platter 1;

BForming platter 1 using fingertips;

CCreating the stabbed perforations using a bone pin

67 Platter 1 showing edge cracking

68 The four experimental platters

69 Using the platter in the cooking experiment

AThe hearth with the fractured small test plate

BPlatter 3 on the hearth suspended above the embers

CPlacing the flatbread on the platter

DCooked flatbread

ECooking steaks

FPlatter 2 and 4 on the hearth note platter 4 is resting on a metal gridle

70 The remains of cooking

APlatter 3 showing the surface encrustation caused by cooking meat

BThe upper surface of platter 4

CThe underside of platter 3

DThe underside of platter 2

71 Plot showing the ranges (one standard deviation) of single compound stable isotope values (δ ¹³ C 16:0 against Δ ¹³ C (δ ¹³ C 18:0 – δ ¹³ C 16:0 ) derived from modern reference values for pig, ruminants and marine fats (Dudd 1998; Cramp & Evershed 2014; Cramp et al . 2014). Mixing lines have been modelled using fatty acid compositions of modern reference species for terrestrial and aquatic species (Dudd 1999 and Cramp unpublished data). Black dots mark a modelled 50:50 mix of equal quantities of fats from the end-points

72 Histogram showing the numbers of sherds from each phase investigated according to mound

73 Box-and-whisker diagrams showing the concentrations of lipid from pottery investigated from Bornais compared with much higher lipid yields from Early Neolithic pottery (<3600 BC) from the Scottish mainland. Appreciable concentrations ≥ 10 µg g-1. Data exclude the lipid concentrations from study 2 as this was extracted using a different protocol that will affect lipid recovery

74 Box-and-whisker diagrams showing the concentrations of lipid from Iron Age and Norse vessels and platters. Data exclude the lipid concentrations from study 2 as this was extracted using a different protocol that will affect lipid recovery

75 Partial high temperature gas chromatogram from sherd BN-29 showing distribution of long-chain even-carbon number fatty acids (X:Y FA), odd-carbon number n -alkanes (X A) and even-carbon number long-chain n -alkanols (X OH), where X is the number of carbon atoms in the chain and Y is the degree of unsaturation. This is indicative of degraded plant wax

76 Plot showing single compound stable carbon isotope values (δ ¹³ C 16:0 against Δ ¹³ C (δ ¹³ C 18:0 – δ ¹³ C 16:0 ) from Late Iron Age I vessels from Mound 1

77 Plot showing single compound stable carbon isotope values (δ ¹³ C 16:0 against Δ ¹³ C (δ ¹³ C 18:0 – δ ¹³ C 16:0 ) from Late Iron Age II vessels from Mound 2. Datapoints shown as stars denote the presence of aquatic biomarkers in the organic residue

78 Mass chromatogram using GC/MS operated in selected ion monitoring mode, scanning for ions m/z 105, 209, 318 and 346 which reveal the presence of C 18 – C 22 ω(o-alkylphenyl) alkanoic acids

79 Plot showing of single compound stable carbon isotope values (δ ¹³ C 16:0 against Δ ¹³ C (δ ¹³ C 18:0 – δ ¹³ C 16:0 ) from Early Norse vessels from Mounds 2 and 2A. Residues in which aquatic biomarkers were also detected are shown as stars

80 Plot showing single compound stable carbon isotope values (δ ¹³ C 16:0 against Δ ¹³ C (δ ¹³ C 18:0 – δ ¹³ C 16:0 ) from Middle Norse vessels. Black datapoints are from Mound 2 (study 1), grey datapoints are from Mound 2 (study 2) and residues from Mound 3 are shown in green. Residues in which aquatic biomarkers were also detected are shown as stars

81 Partial high temperature gas chromatograms from the absorbed and carbonised residues from vessel BN-126, showing a wide distribution of triacylglycerols (TAGs) characteristic of dairy fats

82 Plot showing single compound stable carbon isotope values (δ ¹³ C 16:0 against Δ ¹³ C (δ ¹³ C 18:0 – δ ¹³ C 16:0 ) from Late Norse vessels from Mounds 1, 2, 2A and 3. Residues in which aquatic biomarkers were also detected are shown as stars

83 Partial high temperature gas chromatogram from a Norse platter, showing the low concentrations of unresolved components and phthalate peaks (*)

84 Pie charts showing the frequency of types of animal fat (top row) and aquatic biomarkers (bottom row) in residues that were carried forward for further biomolecular and single compound stable carbon isotope analysis

85 Plot showing single compound stable carbon isotope values (δ ¹³ C 16:0 against Δ ¹³ C (δ ¹³ C 18:0 – δ ¹³ C 16:0 ) from residues extracted from Viking/Norse pottery from Bornais and nearby site of Cille Pheadair alongside those from Jarlshof on the Shetland Isles

86 A diagram of the terminology used to describe the steatite vessels

87 Steatite vessel 1

88 Steatite vessel sherds

89 The distribution of iron sheet fragments and cauldron handles in House 2

90 Iron vessel handle 1043

91 Iron vessel handles 1043 and 2211

92 The silver coins recovered from mounds 2 and 2A

93 A variety of possible weights and part of a balance: 5011 is a fragment of silver bar; 6055 is a copper-alloy balance fragment; 1445 is a copper-alloy weight; 6025, 6937 and 7038 are potentially lead weights

94 A bar chart showing the nature of the comb assemblage from mounds 2 and 2A

95 A bar chart describing the chronological distribution of the comb assemblages

96 A selection of the well-preserved combs

97 A selection of combs with connected sideplates and toothplates

98 A selection of comb sideplates

99 A selection of comb toothplates

100 A fragment of a possible Late Iron Age Ashby type 1C comb 3575

101 A short double-sided Ashby type 11 comb 5469

102 A decorated sideplate fragment (5269) which may be from an Ashby type 11 comb

103 Three fragments of elaborately decorated Ashby type 5 comb (2968 top, 3734 bottom left, 6653 bottom right)

104 An Ashby type 6 comb 1042

105 A pair of sideplates from an Ashby type 7 comb 5398

106 A possible Ashby type 6 comb 2074

107 Two well preserved combs; the top is an Ashby type 8b (5988) the bottom is an Ashby type 8a (6321)

108 Two well preserved Ashby type 8c combs (6002 top and 2010 middle) and a variant that could be called Ashby type 8d? (6155 bottom)

109 An Ashby type 9 comb (2812) with rolled sheet copper-alloy rivets and unusually large amount of cancellous tissue on the sideplates which has encouraged the development of decoration on the spine

110 Two Ashby type 13 combs (1308 left and 2987 right) which were almost certainly imported from Norway

111 A possible sliver of an Ashby type 14 comb 3576

112 The classification of the Bornais sideplates

113 A diagram showing the chronological distribution of different sideplate cross sections

114 The distribution of decorated and undecorated combs in the different stratigraphic blocks

115 Decorative styles including all designs on all decorated comb fragments

AHorizontal lines, along the edges and down the centre

BSaltire

CRing and dot

DInterlace

EVertical lines

FCross-hatching

GZigzag

HDiagonal lines

116 A histogram showing the number of teeth per 10 mm in bone comb toothplates

117 A quantification of the shape of the comb teeth in the assemblage

118 A quantification of the levels of beading visible on the comb teeth in the assemblage

119 A diagram showing the terms used to describe pin form

120 The assemblage of copper-alloy stick pins, and a ring (6330) from a ring-headed pin

121 Club-headed pins 5932, 6981, 3594, 2778, 1451

122 Squared spatulate-headed pins 6636, 3042, 5360, 1838

123 Round-headed pins 2841, 2013, 2336

124 The iron stick pins, and a possible fragment of a ring-headed pin

125 A bar chart showing the distribution of metal pins through time

126 A bar chart showing the distribution of bone pins from mounds 2 and 2A through time

127 A bar chart comparing the complete and broken bone pins from the stratigraphic blocks in mounds 2 and 2A

128 Bone pins, class 1

129 Bone pins, class 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6

130 Bone pins, class 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16 and 17

131 Bone pins, class 10 and 14

132 The distribution of the different pin classes within each phase

133 A class 1 pinhead (1045) from Bornais with a badly incised spiral decoration compared to a class 1 pinhead from Cille Pheadair with a carefully executed Ringerike knot (Paterson in Parker Pearson et al . 2019, 319)

134 Class 4 collared, thistle-headed pins (5340, 6414, 2867) and class 8 mace-headed pins (3455, 5992, 4805, 2299, 2266)

135 Class 9 rectangular headed pin 5403 and class 10 flat complex headed pins (1791, 1193)

136 Two hipped pins (6643, 5488) of Late Iron Age date

137 A histogram showing bone pin length

138 Pin length in relation to pin class: A = 40–69 mm, B = 70–99 mm, C = 100–149 mm, D = 150–179 mm, E = over 180 mm

139 A pie chart showing the degree of pin sharpness in the assemblage

140 A quantification of the various pin classes from Cille Pheadair and Bornais

141 The beads: glass beads 3314, 4363, 4429, 4467, 4492, 6261, 6538, 6833, 6837, 7344, 7365, 7418, 7453, 7466, 7733, 8116; glass counter 6277; amber bead 3673; bone beads 2844, 3782, 5399, 7127, 8031; stone beads 3049, 5292, 5977

142 Disc beads of stone 3049, 5977 and bone 2844

143 A steatite bead (5292) made from a sherd of a steatite bowl

144 A histogram showing the distribution of beads in mounds 2 and 2A by material

145 The gold fillet 8060

146 Two lead cross shaped pendants 5160 and 7732

147 A selection of dress accessories from mounds 2 and 2A: copper-alloy tweezers 6286; copper-alloy ring 3674; gold strip 8060; penannular brooch fragment 4924; lignite bracelet 1003; stone ring 3820; lead pendants 5160 and 7732; copper-alloy buckle fittings 3259, 4942, 5187, 5894, 6394, 6685

148 Copper-alloy sheet fittings 2700, 2943, 5189

149 A selection of buckles and buckle fragments from Bornais. (Note the complete buckle, 1339, was recovered from mound 3 and published in Sharples 2005)

150 The copper-alloy tweezers 6286

151 A selection of decorated antler tines have been shaped and decorated in a variety of different ways

152 Antler tine 2328 showing the zones of finely incised geometric patterning

153 Antler tine 5991 which has a finely incised design on the top half

154 A horn spoon from the Northwest coast of America

155 Antler tine 4919, shaped and decorated to resemble a penis

156 Two views of the decorated antler cylinder 3756, showing the Ringerike beast on the front and the almost completely erased Ringerike knot pattern on the back

157 A simplified outline drawing of the decoration on the cylinder 3756

158 A detailed drawing of the cylinder 3756, showing the decoration in relation to the shape of the cylinder

159 A view of the head of the Ringerike beast showing the distinctive spiral tendrils

160 Animals on Swedish memorial stones that can be compared to the Ringerike animal from Bornais; 1 Tullstorp, Skåne, 2 Bornais, 3 Stora Ek, Västergötland, 4 Nora Åsarp, Västergötland

161 Gaming pieces; all are bone or antler

162 The die (6066) and three die blanks (2854, 2925, 4829)

163 A selection of finished and unfinished antler playing pieces

164 A selection of antler playing pieces and off cuts

165 The pig fibula ‘buzz bones’

166 Pig fibula ‘buzz bones’ 5526, 5861, 2869, 1231, whistle 6735 and tuning peg 5216

167 Iron projectile points and two possible hilt guards

168 Two iron arrowheads 1386 and 4398

169 An X-ray of two fragments of iron maille

170 A quantification of the various categories of personal ornament from mounds 2 and 2A

171 The composition of the personal ornament assemblage in the main phases of the site

172 A selection of iron tools associated with woodworking and metal working: two iron axes 1830, 1849; adze 1676; wedge 4575; punches 5256, 6209; awls 1435, 3481, 3516, 4997, 5317, 5960; strike-a-light 1181

173 A photograph of axe 1849

174 A photograph of adze 1676, punch 5256 and possible wedge 4575

175 A selection of objects associated with agricultural and fishing. A possible iron sickle blade 3578; fishing hooks 1859, 3740, 5061, 5094, 5857; stone weights 1905, 2389, 3300, 6216 and antler picks 2002, 3147

176 Photograph of possible sickle blades 6259 (left) and 3578 (right), and knife blade 3540 (centre)

177 Antler pick 3147 propped against the western gable wall of House 2

178 Antler pick 2002 lying on the windblown sand infilling House 2 clearly showing the charcoal staining and scorching that resulted from the fire built on top of it

179 Stone weights 2389 (top left), 3300 (top right) and 6216 (bottom)

180 Two large whale bone chopping boards; a sperm whale rib 6391 and a fin whale vertebra 2171

181 Whale bones with multiple chop marks on the surface: on the top 1337 and 5324; on the bottom 5268 and 5508

182 Whale bone vertebra 2171 showing the chop marks

183 Sperm whale chopping board 6391 in the entrance passage of House 2, the ranging rod lies between the two walls of the passage

184 A selection of the best-preserved iron knives arranged using the classification system devised by Goodall (2011)

185 A view of all the iron knives and blade fragments from Bornais

186 A comparison of the knife assemblages from Bornais, Whithorn, Coppergate and Ribe using the Ottaway classification

187 Iron knife 1819 which could be classed as an Ottoway type C or a goodall type E

188 Iron knife 1979, a distinctive knife which does not fit either the typology provided by Ottoway or Goodall

189 Iron knife blade 3540 which could be classed as an Ottoway type C2 or a Goodall type J

190 A histogram showing the overall length of the knives

191 A histogram showing the overall length of the knife blades

192 A scatter plot showing the relationship of blade length and knife length

193 A histogram showing the blade width of the iron knives

194 A bar chart showing the chronological distribution of iron knives

195 Four antler handles; 3114 and 2742 have the remains of iron tang still embedded in their sockets

196 Antler handle 3114

197 Whetstones. Eidsborg schist 2313, 2339, 3230, 5406, 5453, 5489, 5940, 6007, 6226, 6249, 6297, 6377, 6701; Purple Phyllite 2304, 3020, 3956, 5021, 5115, 5871, 6423, 6485, 7002; other 1077, 2342, 2729, 3011, 3939, 3963, 8110

198 A selection of whetstones

199 Two Purple Phyllite whetstones (5021 bottom; 6423 top) with perforations for suspension. They have been worn so thin that they have snapped

200 An unusually fine purple phyllite whetstone 6485

201 A substantial sandstone whetstone 1077

202 Histograms showing the length and width of the whetstone objects at Bornais. Note this includes all the whetstones broken and complete

203 The quern 6557

204 Strike-a-light 1181 and candlestick 4993

205 A selection of iron (4965, 5244, 5953) and copper-alloy (2438, 3057, 6060) keys

206 A selection of stone (1074, 2222, 2772, 3751, 3952, 3966, 4750, 5263, 5390, 6068, 6222, 6683, bone (1134, 2424, 2803, 3224, 3724, 3789, 3955, 4369, 4838, 5018, 5120, 6253, 6518, 6602) and ceramic (2682, 6139, 6978) spindle whorls; an unfinished stone whorl (6204); and a cetacean weight (1981)

207 Lead spindle whorls

208 A selection of bone, stone and lead spindle whorls

209 Two views of a distinctive Late Iron Age spindle whorl (5390) with very fine incised decoration

210 Unfinished spindle whorl 6204, with the central perforation drilled from the bottom surface to within a couple of millimetres of the top surface

211 Pie chart showing the materials favoured for spindle whorls at Bornais, in Orkney and at York.

212 A scatter plot of the spindle whorl weights and diameters highlighting the material used

213 A histogram of spindle whorl weight with the data from ‘Viking period’ Orkney as a comparison

214 Whale bone weight 1981

215 Two weaving tablets; 3486 on the left and 3276 on the right

216 Two possible pin beaters; 6410 top, and 5024 bottom

217 Whale bone comb 3510

218 A selection of copper-alloy (4921, 4929, 6515, 6133, 6160), iron (4013, 6754) and bone (1145/1160, 2700, 2895, 2914, 3490, 3519, 4524, 4927, 6188) needles and needle-like (2821, 3102, 3302, 5564) objects

219 A selection of bone needles

220 The copper-alloy needles

221 A histogram depicting the length of the needles

222 Two copper-alloy pins, top 4869 and bottom 4871

223 A selection of bone needle cases

224 The bone needle cases

225 A selection of bone points and the bone spoon/spatula 3194

226 A histogram showing the length of the bone points

227 A view of the sockets of a selection of socketed points and possible points

228 Bone spoon or spatula 3194

229 Miscellaneous antler and bone objects: 3103, 4304, 5856, 6270, 6691, 6861, 7524, 7565, 8641 perforated bone; 7285 and 7569 worked metapodials; 3723 worked antler; 2444 and 3831 rectangular antler frame; 4147 broken antler handle?

230 Perforated phalanges (4304, 7565, 5850) and astragali (3103, 6691)

231 Antler tines with diagonally cut tips; 3048, 2726, 4056 and 3806

232 Antler tines with facetted points; 3581, 3498 and 3158 from left to right

233 Two heavily worn antler points; 3193, 6364

234 Antler tine 3182 which has a carefully blunted tip

235 Antler crown 3149/3214 which has had both ends blunted and shows heavy polish

236 Antler tine 1165 which has been a carefully squared off where it was cut from the beam

237 Two antler tines (1773 bottom and 2730 top) that have been carefully cut from the beam to include a small section of burr

238 Antler tines either with perforations or notched bases

239 Antler tines with perforated or notched bases

240 Antler tine 3514/2953 showing some of its multiple perforations

241 Cobble stone tools: faceted cobble 3208; pounder/grinder 3798, 5326, 6061, 6470; socket base 6100; smoother 1265, 3280

242 The composition of the assemblage of tools from mounds 2 and 2A divided by chronological phase

243 A bar chart showing the chronological distribution of the various miscellaneous tool types in mounds 2 (top) and 2A (bottom)

244 Large sperm whale bone 5929, trimmed to a point and a socket at either end

245 A selection of iron nails

246 A bar chart showing the variation in quantity of the different nail head forms

247 A histogram showing the variation in the width of the nail heads

248 A histogram showing the variation in length of the nails

249 The distribution of the nails, nail heads and nail shanks in the mound 2 (top) and mound 2A (bottom) blocks

250 A group of seven holdfasts (1830) recovered from House 15 (GCE) in mound 2A and two iron staples (4802, 5137)

251 A histogram showing the length of the holdfast shanks

252 A histogram showing the shank thickness of the holdfasts

253 The distribution of holdfast and roves in the mound 2 (top) and 2A (bottom) blocks

254 A pair of copper-alloy rivets 3076

255 Three copper-alloy tacks 7333, 3539, 6467

256 Decorative iron fitting 2260

257 A selection of fittings: 2929 copper-alloy and wood mount; 5019 copper-alloy object; 5062 copper-alloy staple; 5359 copper-alloy strap mount; 2260 iron fitting; 1062/1063/1064/1257/2213, 1597 and 3346 decorated whale bone plaques; 3100, 3620, 4960, 6362 bone casket mount; 5297, 8648 bone mount

258 Decorative copper-alloy fitting 5359

259 A pair of copper-alloy plates rivetted around a piece of wood 2929

260 Copper-alloy object of unknown function 5019

261 Fragment of bone casket mount 3620, note the iron staining around the rivet in the top left corner

262 Fragment of whale bone 1597, with a unique countersunk decorative pattern

263 Large whale bone plaques 1034, 3407, 4514, 5479, 5963, 6713

264 Whale bone plaque 3407

265 Iron horse fittings

266 A miscellaneous selection of iron hooks, fittings and bindings

267 A selection of iron rings

268 Copper-alloy tube 2829, with a corroded iron attachment

269 Small lead discs and a possible weight

270 Fragment of green porphyry 6009

271 Rectangular fragment of amber 6163, and a conjectural reconstruction of its original shape

272 A bar chart showing the composition of the assemblage of structural fittings on mounds 2 and 2A

273 Pie charts showing the variation in the composition of the assemblage of structural fittings on mounds 2 and 2A during the Norse occupation

Chapter 3

274 A diagram showing chronological change in the ubiquity of the main crop taxa on mounds 2 and 2A

275 The percentage dominance of the different crops in the main blocks of mounds 2 and 2A. This records the proportion of samples in which a particular taxon was numerically dominant

276 The density (grains per litre of soil) of the main crops in the main blocks of mounds 2 and 2A

277 The proportion of wild taxa, chaff and cultivated grains in the main blocks of mounds 2 and 2A

278 A diagram showing chronological change in the ubiquity of the wild taxa on mounds 2 and 2A

279 Changes in the proportions of weed taxa in the assemblage of wild seeds over time in mounds 2 and 2A

280 The relative proportions of the main cultivars across different areas of mound 2 and mound 2A

281 The relative proportions of the selected wild taxa across different areas of mound 2 and mound 2A

282 The results of a correspondence analysis comparing House 3 primary and secondary occupation

283 The results of a correspondence analysis comparing House 2 occupation deposits, the mound 2A kiln fill and the area surrounding the kiln

284 The results of a correspondence analysis comparing the Late Iron Age floors, House 1, House 2 and House 3 occupation deposits

285 The results of a correspondence analysis comparing the thirteenth- to fourteenth-century occupation deposits from mounds 2 and 2A and the mound 2A midden assemblages

286 The results of a correspondence analysis comparing the wild taxa from the House 2 floor and hearth deposits

287 Mound 2 charcoal composition by fragment count (N=1100). Note that some taxa have been grouped together and all indeterminate fragments have been excluded. ‘Other’ comprises those representing <1% (Ulmus, Fraxinus, Ilex, Prunus)

288 The percentage frequency of mound 2 charcoal taxa, based upon number of samples (N=57 )

289 The taxonomic composition of charcoal assemblages from the kiln-related samples at mound 2A (by fragment count; N=125)

290 The percentage frequency of mound 2A charcoal taxa, based upon number of samples (N=31)

291 The seasonal preferences of the Norse birds based on NISP for mounds 2 and 2A combined

292 The percentage presence of selected elements belonging to herring

293 The percentage presence of selected elements belonging to saithe

294 The percentage presence of selected elements belonging to cod

295 The percentage presence of selected elements belonging to hake

296 The percentage survival of elements belonging to cattle on mound 2

297 The percentage survival of elements belonging to cattle on mound 2A

298 The percentage survival of elements belonging to sheep on mound 2

299 The percentage survival of elements belonging to sheep on mound 2A

300 The percentage survival of elements belonging to pig on mounds 2 and 2A

301 The percentage survival of elements belonging to deer on mounds 2 and 2A

302 The major food animals by MNE from Late Iron Age blocks

303 The representation of carcass units from the Late Iron Age blocks

304 The major food animals by MNE from the Early Norse deposits on mounds 2 and 2A

305 The representation of carcass units from the Early Norse deposits on mounds 2 and 2A

306 The major food animals by MNE from the Middle Norse deposits on mounds 2 and 2A

307 The representation of carcass units from the Middle Norse deposits on mounds 2 and 2A

308 The major food animals by MNE from the Late Norse deposits on mounds 2 and 2A

309 The representation of carcass units Late Norse deposits on mounds 2 and 2A

Chapter 4

310 A view of the sand dunes adjacent to the Bornais mounds

311 The eroding machair coastline at Cille Pheadair

312 Peat cutting on moorland near An Carra, South Uist

313 The north coast of South Uist looking towards Beinn Mhòr

314 Joseph Huddart’s map of the Hebrides in 1794 with annotated comments on the fishing grounds around the island. (Reproduced with permission of the National Library of Scotland)

315 Limpet breakage zones, redrawn from Law 2014

316 The shellfish taxa from mound 2 and mound 2A

317 The relative abundance of limpets and winkles from mound 2 and mound 2A

318 The average size of the limpets in the samples examined

319 The average size of the winkles in the samples examined

320 A whale barnacle

321 Sanderlings feeding on the shore near Bornais in 2011

322 Three mouse teeth:

AWood mouse left M 1 , occlusal view showing antero-labial spur (×35)

BHouse mouse right M 1 , occlusal view showing extra antero-labial cusp, ×40

CHouse mouse left M1, occlusal view showing extra antero-labial cusp obscured by toothwear, heavy digestion has removed much of the enamel, ×40

323 The tooth wear mortality profiles for cattle and sheep/goat according to block at Mound 2 and 2A

324 The tooth wear mortality profiles for cattle and sheep/goat according to phase and mound

325 The tooth wear mortality profiles for pig by phase

326 The tooth wear mortality profiles for red deer by phase

327 The metrical data for cattle (in millimetres)

328 The metrical data for sheep/goat (in millimetres)

329 The metrical data for red deer astragalus and radius (in millimetres)

330 Cattle and sheep isotope values from mounds 2 and 2A

331 Red deer and pig isotope values from mounds 2 and 2A

332 Bird and dog isotope values from mounds 2 and 2A (EN=Early Norse, MN=Middle Norse, LN=Late Norse)

333 Mean and standard deviations (1σ) of the isotope values for domestic animals in Norse Scottish island sites

334 Visual chronology of the crown and root eruption dependant on cattle molar type (adapted from Balasse et al. 2001)

335 Measured enamel δ ¹⁸ O values for each first and second molar from the five cattle specimens. Samples are positioned on each tooth crown by distance from the estimated unworn occlusal surface (unworn crown height estimated M1 45 mm, M2 50 mm). Increments are represented by their mid-point. Parameter bars represent total increment diameter across growth axis. Analytical error: 0.034%

336 Combined δ ¹⁸ O profiles for the all first and second cattle molars measured against the estimated tooth eruption timeline. Analytical error: 0.034%

337 Measured dentine collagen δ ¹³ C and δ ¹⁵ N values for each first tooth and second molar from the five cattle specimens. Samples positioned on each tooth lobe by distance from the estimated unworn occlusal surface (unworn crown height estimated: M1 45 mm, M2 50 mm). Increments represented by their mid-point. Parameter bars represent total increment diameter across growth axis. Analytical error δ ¹³ C VPBd 0.090%; δ ¹⁵ N AIR 0.072%

338 Combined δ ¹³ C profiles for all first and second cattle molars measured against the estimated tooth eruption timeline. The horizontal purple line denotes the ERJ. Analytical error 0.090%

339 Combined δ ¹⁵ N profiles for all first and second cattle molars measured against the estimated tooth eruption timeline. The horizontal purple line denotes the ERJ. Analytical error 0.072%

340 Oat cropping on the machair near Orosaigh, South Uist

341 The charcoal distribution by phase; based upon ubiquity analysis from both mounds 2 and 2A (N=88). Note that to avoid duplication, the undifferentiated Coniferous and Alnus/Corylus categories only include samples without fragments positively identified to genus

Chapter 5

342 A selection of flint, showing the difference in size between the large nodule, 3852, and the three small beach pebbles 4059, 4479 and 6890. The former is probably imported to the island whereas the latter can be found locally. Also shown are two largest flaked chunks, 3130, and 6142, which may also be imported

343 The worked slate disc 5380

344 The distribution of slate fragments (note the mound 2A is one tenth the scale for mound 2)

345 Hones: 6485 (top) is made of purple phyllite, 6297 (middle) and 6377 (bottom) are made from Eidsborg Schist

346 A large fragment of amber (6163), possibly the arm of a cross

347 SEM–EDS spectrum of a small mineral fragment identified as Orpiment

348 REE patterns of the steatite artefact from Bornish. The y scale is logarithmic

349 REE patterns in the 0.001–0.5 concentration range

350 Results of pXRF analysis: Fe, Ca and K (left) and Ni, Mn, Cr, V and Ti (right), all expressed as element to Mg ratios

351 Fragments of an imported handmade cooking pot (549/2188/3359) from southwest England

352 50× micrograph of the central portion of 5952, weld lines exhibit themselves clearly as white lines running from back to edge in cross-section. Three clear weld lines are visible, with a possible fourth next to one to the far right of the image, the linear arrangement of slag inclusions may indicate prior working of these steel laths before welding

353 The image to the left is a micrograph of the steel portion of 1208 ( Fig. 354 ), showing a close mixture of Wildmanstatten ferrite and pearlite, a tentative estimate of C content would be around 0.4–0.5%, making this steel serviceable as a blade steel, but not ideal. The absence of any martensite and extensive growth of pearlite also indicates that this nail was not hardened in any way after manufacture. The image to the right is the ferrite grains in the iron portion of 1208, although numerous slag inclusions can be seen in this photo, overall the iron was well worked and consisted completely of ferrite. Both images are at 200× magnification

354 4× magnification micrograph of 1208, the separation of the iron and steel used to make this nail can be seen quite clearly towards the bottom edge of the nail shank

355 Scatter diagrams of the copper alloy analysis showing A) zinc and tin by object type B) zinc and tin by phase C) lead and copper by object type D) lead and copper by phase

356 Glass beads 7344, 7418, 7127, 7453, 6837, 7365, 3673, 7733, 8116, 6261

357 Blue glass beads 4363, 4429, 4467, 3314, 6538

358 Glass beads 7466, 4492, 6833

359 Glass counter 6277 and fragment 8117

Chapter 6

360 The landscape of South Uist on the west coast of Scotland

361 The machair under cultivation

362 Boat nousts on Orosaigh

363 Peat cutting on the uplands

364 A diagram showing the range of seasonal and temporal movements required by the occupants of Bornais

365 A diagram of the spatial relationships visible in the Late Norse house, the island of South Uist and the wider landscapes of the Western Isles

366 The ubiquity of cultivated taxa for the main phases at Bornais and Dun Vulan

367 The skeleton of a sheep that has died on the machair

368 The changing nature of the fish assemblage in the 2–10 mm residues from mounds 2 and 2A

369 The changing nature of the fish assemblage from the greater than 10 mm residues from mounds 2 and 2A

370 A selection of beach cobbles that were selected and brought back to the settlement for use as implements. Recovered from the Late Iron Age house floor on mound 1

371 The rib of a sperm whale (2247) used as a chopping board

372 An antler tine (3720) carved and with a decorative terminal

373 A fragment of a platter

374 A collection of iron scrap, mostly holdfasts but including a fragment of axe, found in the Late Norse deposits on mound 2A

375 The copper-alloy stick pins

376 A simplified comparison of the main categories of material from Cille Pheadair and Bornais

377 The distribution of the Cille Pheadair assemblage through time

378 Two bone crosses recovered in the excavation of the Norse settlement at Cille Pheadair

379 The distribution of various categories of personal finds in the floor deposits of House 2, mound 2

380 A simplified comparison of the small find assemblages from Skaill, Quoygrew and Pool on Orkney

381 A view of House 2 from the east

382 A view of House 3 from the north during excavation

Tables

Chapter 2

1The distribution of copper-alloy manufacturing waste

2The distribution of lead manufacturing waste.

3The distribution of iron scrap

4The distribution of bone-working waste

5The taxa exploited for pin manufacturing

6The distribution of whale bone

7The distribution of antler waste (excluding shavings)

8The method of tine and tine tip removal from mounds 2 and 2A by phase (not including unstratified examples or examples where the method of removal was unclear)

9The various categories of comb blanks from mounds 2 and 2A

10 The distribution of antler shavings

11 The distribution of horn cores

12 The distribution of the main categories of flint from mounds 2 and 2A

13 The average flake length, width and thickness from mounds 2 and 2A and from the main stratigraphic units in each mound

14 The distribution of the main categories of retouched pieces from 2 and 2A

15 The distribution of pumice

16 Summary catalogue of pyrotechnological residues from Mound 2

17 Summary catalogue of pyrotechnological residues from Mound 2A

18 The ceramic assemblage recovered from mounds 2 and 2A

19 Weight loss and shrinkage of the miniature platters

20 Weight loss and shrinkage of the replica platters

21 Data from the firing experiment

22 Vessel types sampled for residues from each phase

23 The biomolecular and stable carbon isotope composition of lipid residues and of carbonised visible residues (denoted V and lines italicised) from Bornais carbonised and visible residues. Aquatic markers comprise long-chain ( ≥ C 20 ) ω( o -alkylphenyl) alkanoic acids (LC APAAs), long-chain dihydroxy acids (LC DHFAs) and/or isoprenoid fatty acids; higher plant markers include a series of long-chain even-carbon number n -alkanoic acids, odd-carbon number n -alkanols and odd-carbon number ketones ( s herds from study 2 are shaded in light grey). NA – not analysed

24 The distribution of steatite vessels

25 The distribution of comb fragments on mounds 2 and 2A

26 The quantities of single- and double-sided comb fragments

27 The distribution of different sideplate cross-sections

28 Decorative motifs and their codes

29 The distribution of the different decorative motif on mounds 2 and 2A

30 The distribution of bone and metal pins

31 The distribution of different pin types

32 The variation in pin size classes by pin form

33 The distribution of beads

34 The distribution of various personal ornaments

35 The distribution of decorated bone and antler

36 The distribution of gaming pieces

37 The distribution of musical instruments

38 The distribution of weapons

39 The distribution of all items of personal adornment

40 The distribution of awls, axes, adzes, wedges and punches

41 The distribution of fishing and agricultural tools

42 The distribution of household items

43 Wear patterns on whetstones

44 The distribution of textile-related equipment

45 The distribution of miscellaneous antler and bone objects

46 The distribution of stone cobble tools

47 The distribution of tools

48 The distribution of the nail fragments

49 The distribution of holdfasts and roves

50 The distribution of decorative fittings

51 The distribution of iron fittings

52 The distribution of all fittings

Chapter 3

53 The number of barley and rye grains per rachis segment in mounds 2 and 2A

54 The ubiquity of selected wild taxa in mound 2 and 2A by phase

55 Taxa considered primarily to represent arable weeds in the charred macrofossil assemblages

56 The charcoal from mound 2, grouped by stratigraphic block (showing fragment counts)

57 The charcoal from mound 2A, grouped by stratigraphic block (showing fragment counts)

58 The taphonomic characteristics of the bird bone assemblage by total count, identifiable assemblage and unidentifiable assemblage

59 An overview of the cetacean bone from Late Iron Age to Late Norse deposits on mounds 1, 2, and 2A

60 The size range of the cetacean species found in Scottish and adjacent waters (Lockyer 2001; Reeves et al . 2002)

61 The NISP of the cetacean species from mound 2

62 The NISP of the cetacean species from mound 2A

63 The relationship between element and chronological phase of cetacean bone identified on mounds 2 and 2A

64 The relationship between element and species in the combined assemblage of cetacean bone from mounds 2 and 2A

65 The distribution of burnt cetacean bone by group and form

66 The relationship between the species and the amount of working of the cetacean bone from House 2 (BCC) and House 3 (BEC)

67 The relationship between the species size and nature of the working of the cetacean bone from the different phases of the occupation

68 Cetacean bone artefacts by group and mound

69 The incidence of digestion of animal bone according to block

70 The incidence of burning of animal bone according to block

71 The incidence of butchery of animal bone according to block

72 The human remains from Bornais

Chapter 4

73 The estimated size of herring ( Clupea harengus ) and saithe ( Pollachius virens ) (NISP)

74 The estimated size of cod ( Gadus morhua ) and hake ( Merluccius merluccius ) (NISP)

75 Overview of Late Iron Age species identified on mounds 2 and 1 (NISP), including results from Buckley et al . 2014

76 The dimensions of limpet ( Patella vulgata ) shells from contexts 587, 1187, 1347, 1426, 1649, 1764 and 2620

77 The total breaks per zone for limpet shells in samples 10409, 10664 and 7230. For distribution of zones see Law (2014) and Figure 315

78 The dimensions of winkle ( Littorina littorea ) shells from contexts 512, 587, 863, 946, 973, 1057, 1347, 1388, 1453, 1485, 1649, 1688 and 1764

79 Detailed observations of eight oyster valves from mound 2A

80 The assemblage of crab and urchin shell, showing the overall number of samples examined, the number of samples containing fragments of crab and urchin and the number of fragments of crab and urchin from each block

81 The snails recovered from the ploughsoils (GAA) on mound 2A

82 The snails recovered from the early Norse grey sands (GAD) on mound 2A

83 The snails recovered from the midden layers (GDC) on mound 2A

84 The snails recovered from the floors of House 1 and House 3, mound 2

85 A summary of the bird bones recovered from mounds 2 and 2A

86 The small vertebrates from mounds 2 and 2A (NISP)

87 The small vertebrates from mounds 2 and 2A (MNI)

88 The epiphyseal fusion data from the cattle, sheep, and pig

89 The epiphyseal fusion data from the red deer

90 The number of specimens sampled for isotope analysis per phase in mounds 2 and 2A.

91 Summary statistics of isotope results for the principal food species

92 Summary statistics of isotope results for the principal food species by period

93 A comparison of the Norse isotope results from different sites in the Northern and Western Isles

94 The chronological development of M1 and M2 mandibular molars in cattle (based upon Brown et al . 1960, radiographed eruption data)

95 Summary statistics for δ ¹⁸ OVSMOW, δ ¹³ CVPdB and δ ¹⁵ N AIR values for each sampled tooth and individual

Chapter 5

96 The distribution of slate

97 Steatite vessel fragments analysed by ICP-MS and by pXRF

98 Chondrite-corrected concentrations (in ppm) of rare earth elements in the steatite artefacts from Bornais

99 A comprehensive list of all artefacts sampled and metallographically analysed in this study, the SEM column indicates whether the sample has been elementally analysed via EDS in the SEM

100 SEM-EDS analysis of the blade steel slags. This suggests that overall these were extremely efficient, well-run smelts with clean ore and fuel (apart from 1205 which is clean, but poorly run) as there is no P and very little S present in all of the blades. Some significant inter-variation indicates different steels used in the composite manufactured ones (like 5952), but overall it is likely that most of these blades came from the same, established industry, with the exception of 1205, the quality of which is not the same as the others, although this may be explained by Fe contamination in the analysis

101 SEM-EDS analysis of slag inclusions in the steel parts of the iron objects. It is unlikely that any of these steels came from the same bloom, there is too much variation across almost all elements. This may indicate that steel was conserved and reused, here likely being added to the inefficiently produced iron to provide more strength after bloom consolidation

102 Nail iron is fairly similar across the board, it is possible the two nails were made with the same bloomery iron source, the holdfasts are more varied. 3997 and 4162 are likely to be both from the same very poor, somewhat contaminated smelt, with the Na and Cl explained by sodium chloride ingress during burial. 4888 and 6166 could also be from the same or a similar source, which is different to some of the others. 6166 may have been forged from a reclaimed holdfast

103 The semi-quantitative XRF analysis of the copper-alloy objects

104 The glass colour of the Bornais beads

105 SEM–EDS analyses of the low-lead glass

106 SEM–EDS analyses of the high-lead glass

Chapter 6

107 The site phases and number of samples used in the ubiquity calculations for Figure 366

108 A simplified summary of the small finds from Cille Pheadair and Bornais organised into rough functional categories

109 A simplified summary of the small finds from Skail, Quoygrew and Pool organised into rough functional categories.

List of Contributors

J Best, SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Road, Cardiff, CF10 3EU

J M Bond, School of Archaeological and Forensic Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP

B Cartwright, The South Asia Collection Museum, 34–36 Bethel Street, Norwich, NR2 1NR

E Casanova, Organic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS

D Challinor, High Ellermire Farm, Stokesley, North Yorkshire, TS9 7JN

A Clarke, Rockville Lodge, By Kingston, North Berwick, East Lothian, Scotland

L Cramp, Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, 43 Woodland Road, University of Bristol, BS8 1UU

O Davies, SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Road, Cardiff, CF10 3EU

A Davies-Barrett, SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Road, Cardiff, CF10 3EU

I Dennis, SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Road, Cardiff, CF10 3EU

S Evans, SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Road, Cardiff, CF10 3EU

R Evershed, Organic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol, BS8 1TS

A Forster, DigVentures Ltd, The Workshop, Victoria Yard, 24a Newgate, Barnard Castle, DL12 8NG

P Forward, SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Road, Cardiff, CF10 3EU

C Freer, Department of Archaeology, Laver Building, University of Exeter, EX4 4QE

I Freestone, UCL, Institute of Archaeology, 31–34 Gordon Square, London, WC1H 0PY

G Gaunt, † Ascham House, 10 Foxhill Crescent, Leeds, LS16 5PD

M Hall, Perth Museums and Galleries, Perth, Scotland

K Harding, SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Road, Cardiff, CF10 3EU

T Horne, Department of Archaeology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ

C Ingrem, Summerlands, Harcombe, Uplyme, DT7 3RN

J R Jones, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE

R Jones, Department of Archaeology, Gregory Building, School of Humanities, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ

M Law, Culture and Environment, Bath Spa University, Newton St Loe, Bath, BA2 9BN

J Light, 88 Peperharow Road, Godalming, Surrey, GU7 2PN

R Madgwick, SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Road, Cardiff, CF10 3EU

J Mulville, SHARE, Cardiff University, Colum Road, Cardiff, CF10 3EU

A Pannett, Pen-y-Parc