The Book of Isaiah, Chapters 40–66

By John N. Oswalt

This long-anticipated work completes John Oswalt's two-volume commentary on the book of Isaiah. After opening with a valuable discussion on the state of Isaiah studies today, Oswalt provides an insightful verse-by-verse explanation of Isaiah 40-66, giving special attention to the message of the prophet not only for his own time but also for modern readers.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Eerdmans
• Release date: Mar 4, 1998
• ISBN: 9781467423694

Book preview

The Book of

ISAIAH

Chapters 40–66

---

John N. Oswalt

WILLIAM B. EERDMANS PUBLISHING COMPANY

GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN / CAMBRIDGE, U.K.

© 1998 Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.

2140 Oak Industrial Drive N.E., Grand Rapids, Michigan 49505 /

P.O. Box 163, Cambridge CB3 9PU U.K.

All rights reserved

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Oswalt, John.

The book of Isaiah. Chapters 40–66 / John N. Oswalt.

p. cm.

— (The new international commentary on the Old Testament)

Includes bibliographical references and indexes.

eISBN 978-1-4674-2369-4

ISBN 978-0-8028-2534-6 (alk. paper)

1. Bible. O.T. Isaiah XL–LXVI—Commentaries.

2. Bible. O.T. Isaiah XL–LXVI. English. New International. 1997.

I. Title. II. Series.

BS1515.3.084 1998

224′.1077—dc21 97–24215

CIP

In memoriam

Professor Roland K. Harrison

CONTENTS

General Editor’s Preface

Author’s Preface

Principal Abbreviations

INTRODUCTION

I. Composition

II. Content and Structure

III. Analysis of Contents

IV. Supplemental Bibliography

TEXT AND COMMENTARY

IV. The Vocation of Servanthood (40:1–55:13)

V. The Marks of Servanthood: Divine Character (56:1–66:24)

Notes

INDEXES

I. Subjects

II. Authors

III. Scriptures

IV. Hebrew Words

GENERAL EDITOR’S PREFACE

Long ago St. Paul wrote: I planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the growth (1 Cor. 3:6, NRSV). He was right: ministry indeed requires a team effort—the collective labors of many skilled hands and minds. Someone digs up the dirt and drops in seed, while others water the ground to nourish seedlings to growth. The same team effort over time has brought this commentary series to its position of prominence today. Professor E. J. Young planted it forty years ago, enlisting its first contributors and himself writing its first published volume. Professor R. K. Harrison watered it, signing on other scholars and wisely editing everyone’s finished products. As General Editor, my hands now tend their planting, and, true to Paul’s words, through four decades God has indeed graciously [given] the growth.

Today the New International Commentary on the Old Testament enjoys a wide readership of scholars, priests, pastors, rabbis, and other serious Bible students. Thousands of readers across the religious spectrum and in countless countries consult its volumes in their ongoing preaching, teaching, and research. They warmly welcome the publication of each new volume and eagerly await its eventual transformation from an emerging series into a complete commentary set. But as humanity experiences a new century of history, an era commonly called postmodern, what kind of commentary series is NICOT? What distinguishes it from other similarly well-established series?

Its volumes aim to publish biblical scholarship of the highest quality. Each contributor writes as an expert, both in the biblical text itself and in the relevant scholarly literature, and each commentary conveys the results of wide reading and careful, mature reflection. Ultimately, its spirit is eclectic, each contributor gleaning interpretive insights from any useful source, whatever its religious or philosophical viewpoint, and integrating them into his or her interpretation of a biblical book. The series draws on recent methodological innovations in biblical scholarship, e.g., canon criticism, the so-called new literary criticism, reader-response theories, and sensitivity to gender-based and ethnic readings. NICOT volumes also aim to be irenic in tone, summarizing and critiquing influential views with fairness while defending their own. Its list of contributors includes male and female scholars from a number of Christian faith-groups. The diversity of contributors and their freedom to draw on all relevant methodologies give the entire series an exciting and enriching variety.

What truly distinguishes this series, however, is that it speaks from within that interpretive tradition known as evangelicalism. Evangelicalism is an informal movement within Protestantism that cuts across traditional denominational lines. Its heart and soul is the conviction that the Bible is God’s inspired Word, written by gifted human writers, through which God calls humanity to enjoy a loving personal relationship with its Creator and Savior. True to that tradition, NICOT volumes do not treat the Old Testament as just an ancient literary artifact on a par with the Iliad or the Gilgamesh Epic. They are not literary autopsies of ancient parchment cadavers but rigorous, reverent wrestlings with wonderfully human writings through which the living God speaks his powerful Word. NICOT delicately balances criticism (i.e., the use of standard critical methodologies) with humble respect, admiration, and even affection for the biblical text. As an evangelical commentary, it pays particular attention to the text’s literary features, theological themes, and implications for the life of faith today.

Ultimately, NICOT aims to serve women and men of faith who desire to hear God’s voice afresh through the Old Testament. With gratitude to God for two marvelous gifts—the Scriptures themselves and keen-minded scholars to explain their message—I welcome readers of all kinds to savor the good fruit of this series.

ROBERT L. HUBBARD, JR.

AUTHOR’S PREFACE

It is incumbent on me to express my gratitude to those who have played an important part in the completion of the second volume of this project. Students who have studied the book of Isaiah with me at Asbury Theological Seminary and Trinity Evangelical Divinity School have shared valuable insights with me. Nathan Kline and Michael Maddux were diligent research assistants who located, organized, and gave preliminary review to various bibliographic resources. Dan Gobble prepared the indexes. The board of trustees, administration, and faculty colleagues of Asbury Theological Seminary granted two sabbatical leaves during which much of the actual writing was done. Most important, my wife, Karen, has made a home for us and taken care of many of the details of our life together so that I would have the leisure to carry on this lengthy task. To all of these, but especially to Karen, I offer my deepest thanks.

JOHN N. OSWALT

PRINCIPAL ABBREVIATIONS

AB Anchor Bible

AfO Archiv für Orientforschung

AION Annali dell’Instituto Universitario Orientali di Napoli

AJBI Annual of the Japanese Biblical Institute

AJSL American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures

Akk. Akkadian

ALBO Analecta lovaniensia biblica et orientalia

AnBib Analecta biblica

ANEP J. B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near East in Pictures. 2nd ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969

ANET J. B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts. 3rd ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969

AnOr Analecta orientalia

ANVAO Avhandlinger utgitt av det Norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo

AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament

ARAB D. D. Luckenbill, ed., Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia. 2 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1926–27

Aram. Aramaic

AS Assemblées du Seigneur

ASORDS American Schools of Oriental Research Dissertation Series

ASTI Annual of the Swedish Theological Institute

AUSS Andrews University Seminary Studies

AV Authorized (King James) Version

AzT Arbeiten zur Theologie

BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

BAT Botschaft des Alten Testaments

BDB F. Brown, S. R. Driver, C. Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Repr. Oxford: Clarendon, 1959

BeO Bibbia e oriente

BethM Beth Mikra

BETL Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium

BEvT Beiträge zur evangelische Theologie

BHK R. Kittel, ed., Biblia hebraica. Stuttgart: Württembergische Bibelanstalt, 1937

BHS K. Elliger and W. Rudolph, eds., Biblia hebraica stuttgartensia. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelstiftung, 1967–77

BHT Beiträge zur historischen Theologie

Bib Biblica

BibLeb Bibel und Leben

BibOr Biblica et orientalia

BibS Biblische Studien (Neukirchen)

BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands Library

BJS Brown Judaic Studies

BK Bibel und Kirche

BKAT Biblischer Kommentar: Altes Testament

BN Biblische Notizen

BO Bibliotheca orientalis

BR Biblical Research

BSac Bibliotheca Sacra

BSO(A)S Bulletin of the School of Oriental (and African) Studies

BT The Bible Translator

BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin

BVC Bible et vie chrétienne

BWANT Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament

BZ Biblische Zeitschrift

BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

CBAT J. P. M. Smith and E. J. Goodspeed, The Complete Bible: An American Translation

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CBQMS Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series

CDios Cuidad Dios

CHAL W. L. Holladay, A Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971

CIS Corpus inscriptionum semiticarum

CML J. C. L. Gibson, ed., Canaanite Myths and Legends, rev. ed. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1978

ConBOT Coniectanea biblica, Old Testament

CQR Church Quarterly Review

CTA A. Herdner, ed., Corpus des tablettes en cunéiformes alphabétiques découvertes à Ras Shamra-Ugarit de 1929 à 1939. 2 vols. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1963

CTM Concordia Theological Monthly

DBSup Dictionnaire de la Bible, Supplément

EBib Etudes bibliques

EeT Eglise et Théologie (Ottowa)

EHAT Exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament

EncJud Encyclopedia Judaica

ErFor Erträge der Forschung

ETL Ephemerides theologicae lovanienses

ETR Etudes théologiques et religieuses

EvQ Evangelical Quarterly

EvT Evangelisches Theologie

ExpTim Expository Times

FB Forschung zur Bibel

FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments

FTL Forum theologicae linguisticae

GKC Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Ed. E. Kautzsch. Tr. A. E. Cowley. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910

GTJ Grace Theological Journal

GTT Gereformeerd theologisch Tijdschrift

HAR Hebrew Annual Review

HB Homiletica en Biblica

HKAT Handkommentar zum Alten Testament

HSAT Die Heilige Schrift des Alten Testaments

HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs

HTR Harvard Theological Review

HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual

IB G. A. Buttrick, et al., eds., The Interpreter’s Bible. 12 vols. Nashville: Abingdon, 1952–57

IDB(S) G. A. Buttrick, et al., eds., The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. 4 vols. Nashville: Abingdon, 1962. Supplementary Volume. Ed. K. Crim, et al., 1976

IEJ Israel Exploration Journal

IJT India Journal of Theology

Int Interpretation

ISBE G. W. Bromiley, et al., eds., The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. 4 vols. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979–88

ITC International Theological Commentary

ITQ Irish Theological Quarterly

JA Journal of Archaeology

JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society

JANES Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Studies

JB Jerusalem Bible

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JBR Journal of Bible and Religion

JCS Journal of Cuneiform Studies

JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

JJS Journal of Jewish Studies

JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies

JNSL Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages

JPSV Jewish Publication Society Version

JQR Jewish Quarterly Review

JR Journal of Religion

JRT Journal of Religious Thought

JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament

JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series

JSS Journal of Semitic Studies

JTS Journal of Theological Studies

JTSA Journal of Theology of South Africa

KAI H. Donner and W. Röllig, eds., Kanaanäische und aramäische Inschriften. 3 vols. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1962–71

KAT Kommentar zum Alten Testament

KB L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner, Lexicon in veteris testamenti libros. Leiden: Brill, 1958

KHCAT Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament

Lat. Latin

LD Lectio divina

lit. literally

LXX Septuagint (Greek version of the OT)

MIO Mitteilungen des Instituts für Orientforschung

ms(s). manuscript(s)

MT Masoretic text

NASB New American Standard Bible

NCBC New Century Bible Commentary

NEB New English Bible

NICOT New International Commentary on the Old Testament

NIV New International Version

NJB New Jerusalem Bible

NorTT Norsk Teologisk Tidsskrift

NRSV New Revised Standard Version

NRT La nouvelle revue théologique

NTS New Testament Studies

OBL Orientalia et biblica Lovaniensia

OBO Orbis biblicus et orientalis

OBT Overtures to Biblical Theology

OTL Old Testament Library

OTS Oudtestamentische Studiën

PalCl Palestra del Clero

par. parallel

PastBon Pastor Bonum

PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly

POT De Prediking van het Oude Testament

PTMS Pittsburgh Theological Monograph Series

RB Revue biblique

RBR Ricerche bibliche e religiose

REB Revised English Bible

RevExp Review and Expositor

RHPR Revue d’histoire et de philosophie religieuses

RivB Rivista biblica

RSP Ras Shamra Parallels. 3 vols. Vols. 1–2 ed. L. Fisher; vol. 3 ed. S. Rummel. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1968–79

RSPT Revue des sciences philosophiques et théologiques

RSR Recherches de science religieuse

RSV Revised Standard Version

SAW Sitzungsberichte der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien

SB Sources bibliques

SBLDS Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series

SBLSCS SBL Septuagint and Cognate Studies

SBLSP SBL Seminar Papers

SBT Studies in Biblical Theology

SEÅ Svensk exegetisk årsbok

SEAJT South East Asia Journal of Theology

Sem Semitica

SHVL Skrifter utgivna av Kungliga Humanistiska Vetenskapssamfundet i Lund

SJOT Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament

SJT Scottish Journal of Theology

SKZ Schweizetische Kirchenzeitung

SNVAO Skrifter utgitt av det Norske Videnskaps-Akademi i Oslo

ST Studia theologica (Lund)

StBTh Studia biblica et theologica

STU Schweizerische theologische Umschau

STK Svensk teologisk kvartalskrift

Syr. Syriac (version)

Targ(s). Aramaic Targum(s)

T.B. Babylonian Talmud

TBei Theologische Beiträge

TBT The Bible Today

TBü Theologische Bücherei

TDNT G. Kittel and G. Friedrich, eds., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. 10 vols. Tr. and ed. G. W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964–76

TDOT G. Botterweck and H. Ringgren, eds., Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Vols. 1-. Tr. D. E. Green, et al. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974–

TEV Today’s English Version

TGA Theologie der Gegenwart in Auswahl

THAT E. Jenni and C. Westermann, eds., Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament. 2 vols. Munich: Kaiser; Zurich: Theologischer Verlag, 1971–76

TLZ Theologisches Literaturzeitung

TS Theological Studies

TTS Trierer theologische Studien

TTZ Trierer theologische Zeitschrift

TW Am Tisch des Wortes

TWOT R. L. Harris, et al., eds., Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. 2 vols. Chicago: Moody, 1980

TynBul Tyndale Bulletin

TZ Theologische Zeitschrift

UF Ugarit-Forschungen

Ugar. Ugaritic

UT C. H. Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook. 3 vols. AnOr 38. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1965

UUÅ Uppsala universitets årsskrift

VT Vetus Testamentum

VTSup Supplement to Vetus Testamentum

Vulg. Vulgate

WBC Word Biblical Commentary

WMANT Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament

WTJ Westminster Theological Journal

ZAW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

ZBK Zürcher Bibelkommentar

ZDMG Zeitschrift der deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft

ZDPV Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins

ZNW Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde des Alten Christentums

ZPEB M. Tenney, et al., eds., Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible. 5 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1975

ZTK Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche

The Book of

ISAIAH

Chapters 40–66

INTRODUCTION

This introduction is limited to the composition, structure, and content of Isa. 40–66. For a more complete introduction to the book as a whole, see the volume on Isa. 1–39.¹

I. COMPOSITION

Since the publication of Bernard Duhm’s commentary on Isaiah in 1895, the scholarly community has widely accepted that the three major divisions of the book, chs. 1–39, 40–55, and 56–66, are largely independent of one another.² This conclusion was the natural corollary of the prior conclusion that each of the three sections related to a different time period: chs. 1–39 related to 739–700 B.C.; chs. 40–55 to 545–535 B.C.; and chs. 56–66 to 520–500 B.C. If this position was correct, and considerable internal evidence seemed to support it, then scholars took it as certain that the sections had to have been written at these times, because they considered predictive prophecy to be impossible.

This position prevailed through the first three-quarters of the 20th century. It was bolstered by a number of studies that sought to demonstrate the separateness of the sections, primarily by means of style and language.³ Along with these studies a number of commentaries appeared, either on chs. 40–66, or separately on chs. 40–55 and on chs. 56–66, that assumed the distinctions and interpreted each section without reference to any other. One can probably trace the first deviations from this consensus to the mid-1970s.⁴ But the publication of Brevard Childs’s Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture in 1979 brought the issue to the fore. Childs argued that those responsible for the final shape of the book had consciously suppressed the historical settings of chs. 40–55 and 56–66 in order to strengthen the theological unity of the composition. Furthermore, I Isaiah had been rewritten in more than casual ways so as to reflect the teachings of the later sections.⁵

Although many scholars still view with skepticism the basis for Childs’s suggestions (the conviction that the final form of a composition is the theologically authoritative one), his observations about the text have opened the door for a large number of further studies on the compositional unity of the present book of Isaiah.⁶ W. Brueggemann well states the conclusion of all this work: II Isaiah theologically is seen to be organically derived from I Isaiah.⁷ As for III Isaiah, R. Rendtorff says that it depends so completely on I and II that an independent existence of this third section is, in my opinion, hardly conceivable.⁸

Thus it seems safe to say that at the present time, the idea of several independent books of Isaiah is in the eclipse. From ch. 1 to ch. 66, the various parts of the present book all reflect the other parts. Furthermore, one may say in general terms that the later chapters were written in the light of the former ones, while the former chapters show familiarity with the themes of the later ones. This is not merely a matter of repeating specific catchphrases or of superficial adoption of particular themes. Rather, it is what one may call the necessary development of the central themes that are introduced in the first section of the book.⁹

To be sure, few authors would see these discoveries as pointing to single authorship. As R. E. Clements said, The sixth c. Babylonian background of chapters 40–55 is so explicit that to deny its relevance for an understanding of the contents is to ask for a totally different understanding of prophecy from that which clearly pertains elsewhere in the Old Testament prophetic books.¹⁰ That is, if Isaiah of Jerusalem did write these chapters, then he had a knowledge of the future that was more detailed than that displayed by other OT prophets.¹¹ Furthermore, this view means that these chapters are speaking to people in the future, not merely about them. This is also unique. Assuming that such uniqueness is not possible, one has to conclude that chs. 40–55 were written in the 6th century B.C.

Thus, although contemporary scholars are more and more compelled by the evidence to admit the ideological and theological unity of the book, their conception of the nature of prophecy still prevents them from taking the step that the book itself clearly asks its readers to take: accept these writings as the result of the encounter of a single human being with the self-revealing Lord of the cosmos. Whether we conclude that this claim is correct or not, we cannot explain it away as easily as some writers would like to do: that because unknown persons 150 years after the original Isaiah felt that what they were saying was not new, but only a development of what the old prophet was saying, they consciously submerged their identities in his.

This hypothesis is necessitated by an inability to accept the claims of the book, not by independent data.¹² The great flaw in this scheme, besides the fact that no extrabiblical evidence supports it, is that II Isaiah makes such strenuous efforts to deny it. Without doubt, the theme of chs. 40–55 is the superiority of Israel’s God over the idols of the nations as proved in three ways: his ability to explain the past (41:22), tell the future (41:23), and do things that are radically new (43:18–19).¹³ That is, he alone transcends the bounds of the cosmos. But, as said above, the conviction that these chapters had to be written about 540 B.C. rests squarely on the prior conviction that Isaiah of Jerusalem could not have known the future in any supernatural way. This conviction then involves the unknown Babylonian prophet in an irreconcilable contradiction. His God Yahweh cannot tell the future any more than the gods can, but he wishes his hearers to believe that Yahweh can. In order to prove this point, the prophet tries to get his readers to believe that it was really Isaiah of Jerusalem who said these things, all the while knowing this was not true. He even goes so far as to alter some of the earlier writings (e.g., ch. 13 with its reference to Babylon), or to insert some of his own (chs. 34–35) in order to make those writings correspond more closely to his own work.

But perhaps one may say that the putative prophet did not himself promulgate the fiction, but only later redactors did so. Yet, as noted above, recent scholarship has concluded that II and III Isaiah are organically related to I Isaiah. In their very conceptions they depend on the supposedly prior writings. From the outset they are written as logical extensions of the previous material. Thus II Isaiah can not be saved from himself. He had to manufacture evidence for the marvelous theology that he taught. Not only did his glorious predictions not come true, as R. P. Carroll has argued,¹⁴ the very theology out of which the predictions grew was hollow. God had not predicted Cyrus in advance, nor had he predicted the return from exile in specific detail before the fact. Thus II Isaiah ’s claims for the superiority of Yahweh are groundless. Yet we still hear of the great theologian of the Exile.¹⁵

By contrast, if what the book suggests to us about its origins is true, neither of these objections applies. Isaiah of Jerusalem did indeed predict the Babylonian exile, and in so doing showed how the towering theology that he had applied to events in his own lifetime would become even more towering in relation to those new situations that he could see in outline, but not in detail. Of necessity, he spoke in highly figurative language, as was typical of those prophets who looked into the distant future (e.g., Joel and Zechariah). Thus the language of chs. 40–66, especially 40–55, is much more lyrical and colorful that that of chs. 1–39. In this hypothesis, it is no longer necessary to posit either deception or a kind of rewriting that is, in effect, a denial of what the original author may have said. It does require that we accept the possibility of revelation and prediction. But if it is true, as Clements says, that it is not so much vocabulary and style that prove the author of chs. 1–39 could not have written chs. 40–66, but that the latter chapters seem to have been written to another historical context than the author’s own,¹⁶ perhaps it is the scholarly understanding of the phenomenon of biblical prophecy that needs to be corrected, not the traditional view of the book’s authorship.

II. CONTENT AND STRUCTURE

As noted above, scholars increasingly agree that however and whenever chs. 40–66 came into existence, they were never meant to stand alone. Their structure and content are meant to be understood in the context of chs. 1–39. Just as 2:1–5 and 4:2–6 provided the other side of the picture for 2:6–4:1 and 5:1–30, so chs. 40–66 complete the picture begun in chs. 1–39.

A. CONTENT

In the introduction to Isa. 1–39 I argued that the central theme of the book is servanthood, the servanthood of God’s people through whom his saviorhood is revealed to the world.¹⁷ This theme is made explicit at the outset in 2:1–5. Yet 2:6–4:1 and 5:1–30 also make clear that Israel in Isaiah’s day was in no condition to bear such a message. Israel’s lips were unclean just as Isaiah’s had been. What prevents Israel from being what God intends? Their inability to trust God. They are much more inclined to trust the nations around them than they are to entrust themselves to their covenant master. But if Israel is to be the Servant of God, then they must trust him. This is the issue addressed in chs. 7–39: Whom shall we trust, the nations or God? While servanthood is never stated explicitly in these chapters, it is always there as the implicit basis of the discussion.¹⁸

In a number of ways God demonstrates both his supreme trustworthiness and the uselessness of all other supports, especially those grounded in human pride. The climax of this thought is reached in chs. 36–39, where Jerusalem’s escape from the Assyrian conquest makes plain that God is indeed to be trusted. But at the same time Judah’s fundamental inability to exercise that trust is exhibited in Hezekiah’s failure to declare God’s glory to the Babylonians (39:1–8). It was this kind of failure that would ultimately precipitate the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians, even though the city had here been miraculously delivered.¹⁹

Chapters 40–66 explore the significance of this new situation for the theology that Isaiah had propounded. What does it mean that the God who had delivered from Assyria would not deliver from Babylon? Would he still be trustworthy? Would he still be the Holy One like whom there is no other? Would he still be the Lord of the nations, who has history under his control? Would an Israel so sinful that it can no longer continue in the promised land still have a place in God’s cosmic plans? Would Zion’s election be only temporary, and would it be doomed to be replaced by great Babylon, mistress of the world? What about the ancient Torah and the later covenant with David? Would these be abrogated? These and many other questions like them spring naturally to mind in view of the circumstances of the exile.

Precisely what is taught in chs. 1–39 requires chs. 40–66. Had the theology of chs. 1–39 been less pretentious, it would not need to be extended into the new conditions. But precisely because it claimed so much, it must be either so extended or abandoned. Isaiah shows us that not only could it be extended, but it is also the logical extension of all that he had said. Could not a devout and inspired person in that new setting have made the extension? Certainly, except for two problems, or two aspects of one problem. First, the supposed later authors have done all they can to remove any evidence of their own authorship; second, the present book contains numerous attempts to say that Isaiah of Jerusalem did indeed foresee the Babylonian exile and its consequences (e.g., 3:1–8; 3:24–4:1; 7:3; 11:10–16; 13:1–14:22; 39:6; etc.). Thus, while later editors could have reapplied Isaiah’s theology to their different situations, the present book’s strenuous denial of that hypothesis cannot be gainsaid.

The fundamental point that chs. 40–55 address is the possibility of restoration. That possibility is called into question by two factors. First, ability: can God restore? Second, intention: does he want to restore? Note that both questions relate to God. More than anything else, the exile would raise questions about the character of the God whom Isaiah and the preexilic prophets had been proclaiming. Had the book of Isaiah in its entirety not existed prior to the exile, it is easy to imagine the exilic community simply abandoning their preexilic faith and assimilating to the dominant Babylonian culture, as a number of the Jews did.

Isaiah’s answer to these questions is couched in some of the most glorious poetry in Hebrew literature, or indeed, in any literature. Even in translation the mastery of cadence, imagery, and language has the power to lift the reader to uncommon levels of awareness and appreciation. In this respect the poems are like some of the great poems of the first part of the book (chs. 6, 14, 24, 34–35, etc.), but here, especially in chs. 40–55, the high poetic level is maintained over a great span and through any number of different pieces. In chs. 56–59 the more mundane issues addressed do not call for so exalted a tone, but again in chs. 60–66 we sense the power of a great literary master at work.

1. Chapters 40–48

Isaiah’s answers to the questions that the exile would pose about the character of God are as stirring as his poetry. In ringing assertions Isaiah declares that just as Assyria was a tool (10:5, 15) in the hand of God, so will Babylon be (47:5–9). The Lord, not Bel or Nebo, is the master of history (46:1–5). Babylon’s destruction is as sure as Assyria’s was before it (48:14–16), because God has already ordained its conqueror (42:2–4). Indeed, the exile will show that God is incomparable: there is no god like him, able to explain the past—Creator; able to tell the future—Lord; able to do a brand new thing—Redeemer (43:8–21).

Furthermore, God not only has the ability to deliver, but he also wants to do so. Far from having given up on his people because of their sins, he intends to use their lives as incontrovertible evidence of his sole deity. Over and over, he tells the captives not to be afraid, but to trust him to do something previously unheard-of: restore a people from exile (41:10, 14; 43:1–7; 44:1–5, etc.). As Yahweh’s chosen servants, they will demonstrate to the world that he is truly God and that he is the only Savior (43:10–12; 44:6–8). They must believe that he has not abandoned them (40:27–28).

2. Chapters 49–55

But these promises of restoration raise another question: What will God do about the sin that precipitated the exile in the first place? Will he ignore it, acting as though it did not occur? In short, how can sinful Israel become servant Israel? Changes must occur both in relationship and in character if hope is to endure (48:18–19).

How those changes are to be effected is, at first glance, a mystery, for the apparent means, the same Servant who was first introduced in ch. 42, is marked by helplessness and meekness (49:4; 50:4–6; 53:1–3), unlike mighty Cyrus, who would conquer the nations (41:2–3; 45:1–3) in order to set Israel free.²⁰ Nevertheless, the function of the Servant is to restore Israel. This is already implied in 42:6–7, where the people and the blind can refer only to Israel,²¹ but it is even more apparent in 49:5, 6, 8, which specifically name Israel and Jacob, and in 53:2–6, where the plain referent of the first person plural pronouns is the prophet and the people he addresses. Furthermore, in 53:1 the Servant is equated with the arm of the Lord, a phrase that elsewhere in the segment denotes God’s power to deliver (51:5, 9; 52:10). Thus it is fair to say that whoever the Servant is, he is considered to be the means whereby Israel’s servanthood is made possible. This is only underlined by the jubilant tone of chs. 54 and 55, which offer the promises of a covenant of peace (54:10), even an everlasting one, like that made with David (55:3). This is not potential salvation, but salvation assured, an assurance not found before ch. 53.

This understanding of the content and structure of chs. 49–55 makes plain that the means by which the Servant effects the promised deliverance is by substitutionary self-sacrifice. This in turn sheds light on the nature of the bondage from which deliverance is necessary. If political deliverance was accomplished through Cyrus’s military victories, this deliverance is achieved in a diametrically opposite fashion. It is as the Servant gives himself up to Yahweh for the sins of the people that they find forgiveness for their iniquities (53:11). This act on the part of the Servant is not merely a heroic gesture that he conceived. The text says that the whole endeavor was in the plan and purpose of God (42:5–7; 49:1–2; 50:4–5). Thus the segment culminates in the great invitation to participate in a renewal of the covenant (55:1–5). This is not mere physical restoration but an expression of the moral and judicial satisfaction of the previous covenant judgments entered against this people. This satisfaction could not have been obtained merely through the example of a human servant. It is the result of substitutionary atonement.

3. Chapters 56–66

During the years when there was more of a consensus about the conclusions of critical scholarship than there is today, when II Isaiah was seen as the pinnacle of all the prophetic enterprise, chs. 56–66 were an embarrassment because they seem to partake too much of the supposed judgmental air of chs. 1–39.²² Instead of the rarified air of deliverance, unconditional grace, and substitutionary atonement that breathes through the earlier division, here the focus is once more on the business of living out the life of God in the arena of daily affairs. Moreover, heavy attention is given to the human inability to live that life, even after the glorious promises in chs. 60–62. This sounds altogether too much like I Isaiah for some.

These reminiscences of the first section of the book are one more indication of the book’s fundamental unity.²³ It is as though the author (or redactor, if single authorship seems impossible) is reminding the reader that chs. 40–55, with their emphasis on free grace, are not meant to abrogate the call of chs. 1–39 to a dependence on God that results in a changed pattern of behavior. Furthermore, these chapters remind us that servant involves more than merely being a passive evidence of God’s ability to deliver from bondage. Without the corresponding witness of a holy life, deliverance means little. In this way chs. 56–66 are to chs. 40–55 as James is to Galatians.

Thus this final section of the book serves as a reprise of the opening themes of the Isaian symphony, showing how later movements have affected those themes without fundamentally altering them. That these chapters may have been addressed especially to conditions that would prevail after the return from exile in the years after 538 is less important than that they are written to show how the theology of chs. 40–55 fits into that of chs. 1–39.²⁴ In this respect, it is important to notice that along with the inability of humans to deliver themselves or to replicate the divine character, there is a countervailing emphasis on the divine ability to do what the human spirit cannot. In chs. 56–59 the major emphasis is on the human failure, especially as it relates to promoting social righteousness (56:1–57:13; 58:1–59:14). Over against this are two brief passages speaking of God’s empowerment through his Spirit (57:14–21; 59:15–21). After chs. 60–62, the proportions are reversed, with the major emphasis falling on the divine ability (63:1–9; 65:1–66:24), while the minor falls on human inability (63:10–64:12). In particular, these last chapters speak of Israel as the repository of God’s glory, to which all the nations come (e.g., 56:1–8; 60:1–3, 13–14; 66:18–23). The reminiscence of the thought of 2:1–5 is such that it can hardly be accidental: the symphony is ending as it began. A trusting, redeemed servant Israel becomes the messenger with clean lips through whom the world can find its Savior.

B. STRUCTURE

No less than the content, the structure of chs. 40–66 has been a source of extensive investigation and discussion since the 1970s. This discussion has been complicated by the application to the material of the methods of form criticism, with its tendencies toward atomization.²⁵ Ever since the work of Duhm, scholars have widely accepted that chs. 40–66 contain two freestanding books: chs. 40–55 and chs. 56–66.²⁶ While scholars agree less concerning chs. 56–66, they take chs. 40–55 as a unity in matters of style, theme, organization, and so on.²⁷ But both the conclusions that they were freestanding books and that either of them originated as a unit have been challenged.

These challenges to compositional unity have mostly arisen from form-critical studies. These have tended to see in the materials smaller and smaller original units that have been put together either intentionally or unintentionally into the present shapes.²⁸ Muilenburg’s work in The Interpreter’s Bible is an attempt to maintain the unity of chs. 40–55, while at the same time recognizing the subdivisions that form critics have identified. He divides the 16 chapters into 21 poems, which subdivide into strophes, about 6 per poem. He insists that the work is from one author who combined and recombined the elements of older genres into longer unified compositions.

Writing for Das alttestamentliche Deutsche (OTL in English translation), Westermann emphasizes the prophet’s use of preexisting forms much more explicitly.²⁹ He argues that the lack of clear structural development in the poems is evidence that not only preexisting genres but also preexisting independent units of thought were used. Nevertheless, he agrees with Muilenburg that now larger compositional units in the book owe their present form to a single person. But his understanding of the structure of these units is a good deal more complicated than Muilenburg’s.³⁰

If the influence of Muilenburg and Westermann tended to be more centripetal after the fragmentation of the prewar years, the movement since has been oscillating. On the one hand A. Schoors believes that all the units are freestanding and that any structure is secondary.³¹ On the other hand R. Lack sees it as the intricate work of a single writer.³² R. Melugin has adopted a middle road. He believes that independent oral units can be identified, but that Deutero-Isaiah may well have created many of the genres. Furthermore, although the units can stand independently, someone has artfully arranged them to express a kerygma, a particular theology of salvation. This arrangement has been done so effectively that it is impossible to re-create the redaction history of the various units.³³ Many writers favorably cite Melugin’s work,³⁴ and his position may represent a consensus at this time. But if that is the case, one still must say that there is no consensus regarding the extent of the units of speech; an immense number of positions remain.³⁵ Thus any outline that goes farther than the grossest divisions seems to represent a good deal of subjective judgment about what constitutes an opening or a closing of a segment and what precisely are the necessary components of any given form.³⁶

Leaving aside the question of smaller units for the moment, we must ask about the larger structure. If we do conclude that the materials contained in chs. 40–66 are interrelated and were intended to be so from their first writing, should we then reconsider the structure of the entire section? Above all, should we look for a divisional break at some point other than between chs. 55 and 56? Perhaps the best argument for doing that is found in the recurrence of the phrase There is no peace, says the Lord, for the wicked, at 48:22 and 57:21 (the latter varies by having my God in place of the Lord). This recurrence divides the 27 chapters into three equal segments of 9 chapters each. This certainly seems to be an intentional attempt to structure the book, and distinguished commentators from Delitzsch to Watts have developed their understanding of the larger structure accordingly.³⁷

Nonetheless, careful study of the two passages does not yield confidence that the phrase at 48:22 was original. 57:19–21 flow together smoothly, with v. 21 being the logical completion of v. 20. That is not the case with 48:22, where the point of vv. 20–21 is an announcement of deliverance from Babylon. In this context the refrain does not follow smoothly at all; rather, it has the appearance of a mechanical insertion. Thus the decision to start a new subdivision at ch. 49 does not depend on the appearance of the refrain. There is a shift of thought and focus at this point. By the same token there is no thought division between chs. 57 and 58. Similar thoughts continue to be expressed in similar ways. Thus the appearance of the refrain in 48:22 could be an editorial addition supporting a more mechanical division than one based on either form or content.

The major thought groupings seem to be the well-known chs. 40–48, 49–55, and 56–66. Chs. 40–48 deal with God’s declaration that he will demonstrate his deity to the world by delivering his servant Israel from Babylon. Chs. 49–55 turn to the ministry of the servant on behalf of servant Israel. Chs. 56–66 talk about the life and witness of the delivered servant. Chs. 40–55 are united by their consideration of the servant’s deliverance, while chs. 56–66 deal with the implications of the deliverance.

As noted above, it is difficult to speak with complete confidence about the smaller structural components in the three larger sections. Nevertheless, some general clues are helpful. Ch. 40 seems to function as a transition between the two larger segments of the book: it speaks of God’s lordship over the nations (vv. 12–24; cf. chs. 1–39) as the basis for his being able to offer deliverance to his people (vv. 1–11, 27–31; cf. chs. 41–66). The next section includes 41:1–44:23, where the recurring theme is God’s superiority over the idols, especially as seen in his ability to predict the future and to deliver Israel from exile. The third section is 44:23–47:15, in which there is increasing specificity in the identification of Cyrus and the judgment on Babylon’s pride. The fourth section, ch. 48, addresses the people’s unwillingness to believe God’s promises.

As already mentioned, chs. 49–55 show three clear components: 49:1–52:12; 52:13–53:12; and 54:1–55:13. Within the first and third of these it is difficult to discern any clear progression of thought, although each one exhibits a building toward emotional climax. In each case reiteration of various aspects of a single complex idea seems to be the method of communication. The first section encourages the people to anticipate salvation, while the third is a call to participate in it. 52:13–53:12 provides a clear hinge between these two sections.³⁸

After the joyous climax of ch. 55 with its emphasis on grace and election, the blunt Thus says the Lord, ‘Keep justice and do righteousness’  (56:1) comes as a dash of cold water. But it introduces the final division of the book, where the moral and social implications of deliverance are not left to the imagination. Furthermore, it makes plain that the outworking of these implications is beyond the abilities of the unaided human spirit.

The division is subdivided into three parts in a chiastic arrangement.³⁹ The first subdivision, 56:1–59:21, is divided in two as it addresses two issues: what it requires to be a member of the elect people of God (56:1–57:21), and what it means to live as the people of God (58:1–59:21). Each of these ends with a statement of God’s power to enable. The second subdivision, 60:1–62:12, reaffirms God’s promises to redeem his people and to establish his messianic kingdom among them. In a sense these chapters provide the center point around which the preceding and following subdivisions revolve. Whatever hard realities may be involved in living out the life of God, we may rest in the abundant promises of our God. The third subdivision, 63:1–66:24, is in many ways a mirror image of chs. 56–59, beginning where that unit ends and ending where it began (59:15b–20 = 63:1–6; 56:1–57:13 = 66:1–24). But it contains reflections of the eschatological promises of chs. 60–62 and thus moves beyond its analog (64:1–7; 65:17–25). In some ways chs. 60–66 function as a conclusion to the book and thus correspond to chs. 1–5, the introduction to the book. The promises made there are realized here, and the sins condemned there are cleansed here. In particular, the promise of 2:2–5 is fulfilled so that the light of God will be revealed to the nations through his redeemed people (66:18–24).

III. ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

IV. THE VOCATION OF SERVANTHOOD (40:1–55:13)

A. MOTIVE FOR SERVANTHOOD: GRACE (40:1–48:22)

1. The Servant’s Lord (40:1–31)

a. The comforting Lord (40:1–11)

b. The incomparable Lord (40:12–26)

(1) The Lord of creation (40:12–20)

(2) The Lord over creation (40:21–26)

c. The dependable Lord (40:27–31)

2. The Servant of the Lord (41:1–44:22)

a. God’s promises to his servants (41:1–42:9)

(1) The fearful Servant (41:1–20)

(a) God’s work terrifies idolaters (41:1–7)

(b) Israel need not fear (41:8–20)

(2) The ministering Servant (41:21–42:9)

(a) Helpless idols (41:21–29)

(b) The Servant who brings justice (42:1–9)

(i) Presentation (42:1–4)

(ii) Commission (42:5–9)

b. Redeemed to be God’s witnesses (42:10–44:22)

(1) The certainty of redemption (42:10–43:7)

(a) God’s victory (42:10–17)

(b) Israel’s blindness (42:18–25)

(c) Israel’s redemption (43:1–7)

(2) Witnesses for God’s uniqueness (43:8–44:5)

(a) You are my witnesses (43:8–13)

(b) God delivers his witnesses (43:14–44:5)

(i) God’s power—then and now (43:14–21)

(ii) Salvation by grace, not by performance (43:22–28)

(iii) The promised Spirit (44:1–5)

(c) The folly of idolatry (44:6–20)

(i) No other rock (44:6–8)

(ii) The deadly results of idolatry (44:9–20)

(α) Idolaters are nothing (44:9–11)

(β) Idolaters are confused (44:12–17)

(γ) Idolaters are blind (44:18–20)

(3) Remember the Lord (44:21–22)

3. The Lord Redeems His Servant (44:23–47:15)

a. Announcement of salvation (44:23–28)

b. God’s choice of a deliverer (45:1–13)

(1) God’s promise to Cyrus (45:1–8)

(2) God’s right to use whom he chooses (45:9–13)

c. God’s superiority over the idols (45:14–46:13)

(1) The Creator is the Savior (45:14–19)

(2) God saves, not the idols (45:20–25)

(3) Idols do not carry, but are carried (46:1–7)

(4) God’s righteous purpose in Cyrus (46:8–13)

d. God arraigns proud Babylon (47:1–15)

(1) Babylon’s humiliation (47:1–4)

(2) Babylon’s false pride (47:5–11)

(3) Babylon’s helplessness (47:12–15)

4. Hear the Lord (48:1–22)

a. The Word of God (48:1–11)

(1) Former things (48:1–5)

(2) New things (48:6–11)

b. Listen to Me (48:12–22)

(1) The Lord of eternity and time (48:12–16)

(2) O, that you had listened (48:17–22)

B. THE MEANS OF SERVANTHOOD: ATONEMENT (49:1–55:13)

1. Anticipation of Salvation (49:1–52:12)

a. Comfort through the Servant (49:1–13)

(1) The Servant’s calling (49:1–7)

(2) The Servant’s work (49:8–13)

b. Zion not forgotten (49:14–50:3)

(1) Written on my hands (49:14–26)

(a) Children restored (49:14–23)

(b) Oppressors destroyed (49:24–26)

(2) The will and the power to deliver (50:1–3)

c. The Servant’s confidence (50:4–9)

d. Obey the voice of his Servant (50:10–51:8)

(1) Light or darkness (50:10–11)

(2) The righteous listen to him (51:1–8)

e. Awake and be delivered (51:9–52:12)

(1) The arm of the Lord (51:9–16)

(a) Zion’s cry (51:9–11)

(b) The Lord’s response (51:12–16)

(2) Drunken Jerusalem (51:17–23)

(3) Captive Zion (52:1–12)

(a) Redeemed without money (52:1–6)

(b) Depart, depart (52:7–12)

2. Proclamation of Salvation (52:13–53:12)

a. Astonishment and rejection (52:13–53:3)

b. Punished for others (53:4–6)

c. Unjustly punished (53:7–9)

d. Many made righteous (53:10–12)

3. Invitation to Salvation (54:1–55:13)

a. Everlasting love (54:1–17)

(1) A wife restored (54:1–10)

(2) A city rebuilt (54:11–17)

b. Seek the Lord (55:1–13)

(1) Eat what is good (55:1–5)

(2) My word will not return empty (55:6–13)

V. THE MARKS OF SERVANTHOOD: DIVINE CHARACTER (56:1–66:24)

A. HUMAN INABILITY (56:1–59:21)

1. Humility and Holiness (56:1–57:21)

a. Obedience, not birthright (56:1–8)

b. Injustice and idolatry (56:9–57:13)

(1) Sheep without a shepherd (56:9–57:2)

(2) Your collection of idols (57:3–13)

c. The holy and the humble (57:14–21)

2. Righteousness and Ritual (58:1–59:21)

a. God’s pleasure instead of yours (58:1–14)

(1) Your pleasure (58:1–5)

(2) God’s pleasure (58:6–14)

b. The effects of iniquity (59:1–15a)

(1) No deliverance (59:1–8)

(2) No justice (59:9–15a)

c. His own arm brings victory (59:15b–21)

B. THE LORD HAS GLORIFIED YOU (60:1–62:12)

1. The Glory of the Lord (60:1–22)

a. The nations come to your light (60:1–9)

b. Foreigners will serve you (60:10–16)

c. Gold for bronze (60:17–22)

2. The Holy People (61:1–62:12)

a. The anointed One (61:1–3)

b. The people whom the Lord has blessed (61:4–11)

c. No more forsaken (62:1–5)

d. Watchmen for God (62:6–9)

e. Prepare the way (62:10–12)

C. DIVINE ABILITY (63:1–66:24)

1. Israel’s Faithlessness; the Lord’s Faithfulness (63:1–65:16)

a. The lone Warrrior (63:1–6)

b. Where are you? (63:7–64:11 [Eng. 12])

(1) Faithfulness and rebellion (63:7–14)

(2) Will you restrain yourself? (63:15–64:11 [Eng. 12])

(a) Why make us err? (63:15–19a [Eng. 19])

(b) Split the heavens and come down (63:19b–64:6 [Eng. 64:1–7])

(c) Will you keep silent? (64:7–11 [Eng. 8–12])

c. Rebels and servants: God’s response (65:1–16)

(1) I was ready (65:1–7)

(2) So will I do for my servants (65:8–16)

2. The Final Judgment (65:17–66:24)

a. New heavens and a new earth (65:17–25)

b. Humility, not sacrifice (66:1–6)

c. Mother Jerusalem (66:7–14)

d. Worship or destruction (66:15–24)

IV. SUPPLEMENTAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

This bibliography is designed to supplement the main bibliography, which appears in volume 1. As such it contains only those items that appear exclusively in this volume or those that have been published since the publication of volume 1. For a specialized bibliography on the Servant and the Servant Songs see the excursus following 42:4, pp. 113–15. A similar specialized bibliography on 52:13–53:12 may be found on pp. 408–10.

E. Achtemeier, The Community and Message of Isaiah 56–66: A Theological Commentary. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1982.

P. R. Ackroyd, Isaiah 36–39: Structure and Function, in Von Kanaan bis Kerala. Fest. J. P. M. van der Ploeg. Ed. W. C. Delsman, et al. AOAT 211. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1982. Pp. 329–52.

Y. Aharoni and M. Avi-Yonah, The Macmillan Bible Atlas. New York: Macmillan, 1968.

W. F. Albright, The High Place in Ancient Palestine, in Volume du Congrès: Strasbourg, 1956. VTSup 4. Leiden: Brill, 1957. Pp. 242–58.

J. M. Allegro, "The Meaning of byn in Is. 44,4," ZAW 63 (1951) 154–56.

L. C. Allen, Cuckoos in the Textual Nest at 2 Kings xx.13; Isa. xlii.10; xlix.24; Ps. xxii.17; 2 Chron. v.9, JTS 22 (1971) 146–47.

———, Isaiah 53:2 Again, VT 21 (1971) 490.

———, Isaiah LIII,11 and Its Echoes, Vox Evangelica 1 (1962) 24–28.

A. Alonzo, Anotaciones criticas a Is. 53:8, CDios 181 (1968) 89–100.

———, La Suerte del Siervo, Is. 53:9–10, CDios 181 (1968) 292–305.

R. Alter, The Art of Biblical Poetry. New York: Basic, 1985.

R. Altham, " ‘Yom, time’ and Some Texts in Isaiah 43:14; 48:7," JNSL 11 (1983) 3–8.

D. Anderson, Renaming and Wedding Imagery in Isaiah 62, Bib 67 (1986) 75–80.

D. R. Ap-Thomas, Two Notes on Isaiah, in Essays in Honour of Griffithes Wheeler Thatcher. Ed. E. C. B. MacLaurin. Sydney: Sydney University Press, 1967. Pp. 45–61.

G. Archer and G. Chirichigno, Old Testament Quotations in the New Testament. Chicago: Moody Press, 1983.

G. Arnera, Du rocher d’Isaie aux douze montagnes d’Hermas, ETR 59 (1984) 215–20.

G. J. van Arragon, Reminiscenties aan Deuteronomium in Jesaja 40–55, in De Knecht: Studies rondom Deutero-Jesaja. Fest. J. L. Koole. Ed. H. H. Grosheide, et al. Kampen: Kok, 1978. Pp. 11–16.

A. G. Auld, Poetry, Prophecy, Hermeneutic; Recent Studies in Isaiah, SJT 33 (1980) 567–81.

R. Aus, The Relevance of Isaiah 66:7 to Revelation 12 and 2 Thessalonians 1, ZNW 67 (1976) 252–68.

W. Baier, Die letzten Worte eines Propheten und die Vertriebenen (Jes 55,6–11), BK 24 (1969) 135–37.

M. Baldacci, Due antecedenti storici in Is. 65,11, BiOr 20 (1978) 189–91.

———, Due misconescuite parallelismi ad Isaia 59:10, BiOr 22 (1980) 237–42.

W. E. Barnes, Cyrus the Servant of Yahweh, JTS 32 (1930–31) 32–39.

———, The Masoretic Reading of Isaiah 43,14, JTS 29 (1927–28) 252–55.

M. Barré, Fasting in Isaiah 58:1–12: A Reexamination, BTB 15 (1985) 94–97.

H. M. Barstad, On the So-called Babylonian Literary Influence in Second Isaiah, SJOT 2 (1987) 90–110.

D. Barthélemy, Critique textuelle de l’Ancien Testament. Vol. 2. OBO 50/2. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1986.

J. Battenfield, Isaiah 53:10; Taking an if out of the Sacrifice of the Servant, VT 32 (1982) 485.

B. Batto, The Covenant of Peace: A Neglected Ancient Near Eastern Motif, CBQ 49 (1987) 187–211.

E. Beaucamp,  ‘Chant nouveau du retour’ (Is 42,10–17): Un monstre de l’exégèse moderne, RevScRel 56 (1982) 145–58.

M. A. Beek, Das Mitleiden Gottes: Eine masoretische Interpretation von Jes 63,9, in Symbolae Biblicae et Mesopotamicae. Fest. F. M. T. de Liagre Bohl. Ed. M. A. Beek, et al. Leiden: Brill, 1973. Pp. 23–30.

C. Begg, Zedekiah and the Servant, ETL 62 (1986) 393–98.

J. Begrich, Der priestliche Heilsorakel, ZAW 52 (1934) 81–92.

———, Studien zu Deuterojesaja. BWANT 77. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1938.

S. Behler, Le deuxième chant du serviteur, Is 49,1–9a, Vie Spirituelle 121 (1969) 113–44.

R. Bergmeier, "Das Streben nach Gewinn—des Volkes ʿwn," ZAW 81 (1969) 93–97.

A. Berlin, Isaiah 40:4, Etymological and Poetic Considerations, HAR 3 (1979) 1–6.

W. A. M. Beuken, Isaiah 54: Multiple Identity of the Person Addressed, in Language and Meaning: Studies in Hebrew Language and Biblical Exegesis. OTS 19. Leiden: Brill, 1974. Pp. 29–70.

———, Jesaja II–III. POT. 4 vols. Nijkerk: Callenbach, 1979–89.

———, Jes. 50:10–11: Eine kultische Paranese zur dritten Ebed-prophetie, ZAW 85 (1973) 168–82.

———, Mišpāṭ: The First Servant Song and Its Context, VT 22 (1972) 1–30.

———, De vergeefse moeite van de Knecht, in De Knecht: Studies rondom Deutero-Jesaja. Fest. J. L. Koole. Ed. H. H. Grosheide, et al. Kampen: Kok, 1979. Pp. 23–40.

S. Blank,  ‘And all our Virtues’—An Interpretation of Isaiah 64:4b–5a, JBL 71 (1952) 149–54.

I. Blythin, A Consideration of Difficulties in the Hebrew Test of Is. 53:11, BT 17 (1966) 27–31.

———, A Note on Isaiah 49:16, VT 16 (1966) 229–30.

L. Boadt, Is. 41, 8–13: Notes on Poetic Structure and Style, CBQ 35 (1973) 20–34.

P. É. Bonnard, Le Second Isaïe: Son disciple et leurs éditeurs (Isaïe 40–66). SB. Paris: Gabalda, 1972.

T. Booj, Negation in Isaiah 43:22–24, ZAW 94 (1982) 390–400.

A. Bos, Sion: Lazuursteen, robijn en Harbonkel, Jes. 54,11s., HB 23 (1964) 9–12.

G. Botterweck, Sehnsucht nach dem Heil, Is 64,1–7, BibLeb 6 (1965) 280–85.

W. Brueggemann, Isaiah 55 and Deuteronomic Theology, ZAW 80 (1968) 191–203.

———, Unity and Dynamic in the Isaiah Tradition, JSOT 29 (1981) 89–107.

J. Bright, Faith and Destiny: The Meaning of History in Deutero-Isaiah, Int 5 (1951) 3–26.

W. Brownlee, "Mshty (Is. 52:14 1QIsa)," BASOR 132 (1953) 8–15.

I. Buse, The Markan Account of the Baptism of Jesus and Isaiah 63, JTS 7 (1956) 74–75.

W. R. Cannon, Isaiah 57,14–21, 60–62, ZAW 11 (1934) 75–77.

A. Caquot, Les graces de David: A propos d’Is. 55,3b, Sem 15 (1965) 45–59.

J. Carmignac, Six passages d’Isaïe éclairés par Qumran, in Bibel und Qumran. Ed. S. Wagner. Berlin: Evangelische Haupt-Bibelgesellschaft, 1968. Pp. 37–46.

R. P. Carroll, Second Isaiah and the Failure of Prophecy, ST 32 (1978) 119–31.

C. Castenada, The Teachings of Don Juan. New York: Ballantine, 1968.

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Reviews for The Book of Isaiah, Chapters 40–66

[vanjr-1 · Rating: 4 out of 5 stars]

This is an excellent commentary on Isaiah that argues strongly for the book to be read as a theological whole and to be read as predictive prophecy. I found it more engaging than Edward Youngs classic commentary. If you want a more "current" multi-author treatment you need to look elsewhere, but if you do I would recommend this commentary for balance. I look forward to starting volume 2 tomorrow.