Revelation

By John Christopher Thomas and Frank D. Macchia

The book of Revelation is perhaps the most theologically complex and literarily sophisticated — and also the most sensual — document in the New Testament. In this commentary John Christopher Thomas’s literary and exegetical analysis makes the challenging text of Revelation more accessible and easier to understand. Frank Macchia follows up with sustained theological essays on the book’s most significant themes and issues, accenting especially the underappreciated place of the Holy Spirit in the theology of Revelation.
 

• Language: English
• Publisher: Eerdmans
• Release date: Apr 11, 2016
• ISBN: 9781467445498

Book preview

THE TWO HORIZONS NEW TESTAMENT COMMENTARY

JOEL B. GREEN and MAX TURNER, General Editors

Two features distinguish THE TWO HORIZONS NEW TESTAMENT COMMENTARY series: theological exegesis and theological reflection.

Exegesis since the Reformation era and especially in the past two hundred years emphasized careful attention to philology, grammar, syntax, and concerns of a historical nature. More recently, commentary has expanded to include social-scientific, political, or canonical questions and more.

Without slighting the significance of those sorts of questions, scholars in THE TWO HORIZONS NEW TESTAMENT COMMENTARY locate their primary interests on theological readings of texts, past and present. The result is a paragraph-by-paragraph engagement with the text that is deliberately theological in focus.

Theological reflection in THE TWO HORIZONS NEW TESTAMENT COMMENTARY takes many forms, including locating each New Testament book in relation to the whole of Scripture — asking what the biblical book contributes to biblical theology — and in conversation with constructive theology of today. How commentators engage in the work of theological reflection will differ from book to book, depending on their particular theological tradition and how they perceive the work of biblical theology and theological hermeneutics. This heterogeneity derives as well from the relative infancy of the project of theological interpretation of Scripture in modern times and from the challenge of grappling with a book’s message in Greco-Roman antiquity, in the canon of Scripture and history of interpretation, and for life in the admittedly diverse Western world at the beginning of the twenty-first century.

THE TWO HORIZONS NEW TESTAMENT COMMENTARY is written primarily for students, pastors, and other Christian leaders seeking to engage in theological interpretation of Scripture.

Revelation

John Christopher Thomas and Frank D. Macchia

WILLIAM B. EERDMANS PUBLISHING COMPANY

GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN

© 2016 John Christopher Thomas and Frank D. Macchia

All rights reserved

Published 2016 by

Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.

2140 Oak Industrial Drive N.E., Grand Rapids, Michigan 49505

22 21 20 19 18 17 16  7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Thomas, John Christopher, author. | Macchia, Frank D., 1952-

Title: Revelation / John Christopher Thomas, and Frank D. Macchia.

Description: Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2016. | Series: The two horizons New Testament commentary

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2015034476 | ISBN 9780802825544 (paperback) | eISBN 9781467445498

Subjects: LCSH: Bible. Revelation — Commentaries. | BISAC: RELIGION / Biblical Commentary / New Testament.

Classification: LCC BS2825.53 .T46 2016 |

DDC 228/.07 — dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015034476

www.eerdmans.com

This commentary is dedicated to our daughters —

Paige Diane Thomas Scaperoth

Lori Danielle Thomas Brown

Desiree Verena Macchia

Jasmine Xian Macchia

Contents

Preface

Abbreviations

INTRODUCTION

Structure and Nature of the Book

Literary Markers Recognized by a First-Time Hearer of Revelation

Revelation as Visionary Drama

Revelation as Christian Prophecy

Revelation and the Apocalyptic Tradition

Revelation as Intertext

The Canonical Location and Function of Revelation

Audience

Geographic Location — Asia Minor

The Johannine Community

OT Literature (Intertextuality)

People of the Spirit

Women

Witness and Persecution

Opponents and Opposition

Cosmic Opposition

Concrete Expressions of Opposition

Date

Internal Indicators

External Evidence

A Modest Proposal with regard to Date

Authorship

John the Prophet

Writing in the Spirit

John the Prophet and the Other Johannine Literature

John in Early Christian Tradition

Revelation and Its Streams of Influence: The History of Effects

Disastrous Interpretations of Revelation

Other Johannine Apocalyptic Documents

Art

Music

Poetry

Film

Commentaries

COMMENTARY

Prologue (1:1-8)

In the Spirit on the Lord’s Day (1:9–3:22)

The Inaugural Vision of Jesus (1:9-20)

The Seven Prophetic Messages to the Seven Churches of Asia (2:1–3:22)

To the Angel of the Church in Ephesus (2:1-7)

To the Angel of the Church in Smyrna (2:8-11)

To the Angel of the Church in Pergamum (2:12-17)

To the Angel of the Church in Thyatira (2:18-29)

To the Angel of the Church in Sardis (3:1-6)

To the Angel of the Church in Philadelphia (3:7-13)

To the Angel of the Church in Laodicea (3:14-22)

In the Spirit in Heaven (4:1–16:21)

The Inaugural Vision of Heaven, the One Who Sits on the Throne, the Lamb, and the Scroll Sealed with Seven Seals (4:1–5:14)

The Opening of the Scroll Sealed with Seven Seals (6:1–8:5)

The Opening of the First Six Seals (6:1-17)

The Interlude of the 144,000 and the Great Multitude (7:1-17)

The Opening of the Seventh Seal and the Golden Altar (8:1-5)

Seven Angels with Seven Trumpets (8:6–11:19)

The Sounding of the First Six Trumpets (8:6–9:21)

The Interlude of the Little Scroll and the Two Witnesses (10:1–11:14)

The Sounding of the Seventh Trumpet (11:15-19)

The Struggle of God’s People in Cosmic Perspective (12:1–14:20)

Signs in Heaven: The Woman Clothed with the Sun, and the Red Dragon (12:1–13:1a)

The Two Beasts (13:1b-18)

The Lamb and the 144,000, the Harvest and the Winepress (14:1-20)

Seven Angels with Seven Bowls of Plagues (15:1–16:21)

Another Great Sign in Heaven: The Seven Angels (15:1-8)

The Pouring Out of the Seven Bowls (16:1-21)

In the Spirit — Carried to a Wilderness (17:1–21:8)

The Woman on the Beast: Babylon the Whore (17:1-18)

The Destruction of Babylon (18:1-24)

From Babylon the Great to the New Jerusalem — from the Last Judgment to the New Creation (19:1–21:8)

Rejoicing in Heaven and on Earth and the Marriage Supper of the Lamb (19:1-10)

The King of Kings and Lord of Lords (19:11-16)

Victory over the King’s Enemies (19:17-21)

The Thousand-Year Reign (20:1-6)

Satan’s Final Rebellion and Defeat (20:7-10)

The Final Judgment (20:11-15)

The Descent of the New Jerusalem (21:1-8)

In the Spirit — Carried to a Great High Mountain: The Description of the New Jerusalem (21:9–22:5)

Epilogue (22:6-21)

THEOLOGICAL HORIZONS OF REVELATION

God

Revelation and Biblical Theology

Revelation

Gospel of John and 1–3 John

Matthew and Mark

Luke and Acts

Paul

Other New Testament Voices

Conclusion

Revelation and Systematic Theology

The Sovereign God of Classical Theism

Doxology: The Point of Departure

The Sovereign God of Resurrection

The Sovereign God of Love and Grace

The Sovereign God in Holiness

The Sovereign God at War

Conclusion

Christ

Revelation and Biblical Theology

Revelation

Gospel of John and 1–3 John

Matthew and Mark

Luke and Acts

Paul

Other New Testament Voices

Conclusion

Revelation and Systematic Theology

Christological Method

Worship and the Mediation of the Lamb

Christ and the Challenge of Pluralism

Toward a Nonviolent Christology

Word of the Father and Man of the Spirit

Conclusion

Holy Spirit

Revelation and Biblical Theology

Revelation

Gospel of John and 1–3 John

Matthew and Mark

Luke and Acts

Paul

Other New Testament Voices

Conclusion

Revelation and Systematic Theology

The Need for Discernment

The Deity and Person of the Spirit

The Witness to the Nations

The Spirit of Life

Conclusion

Church

Revelation and Biblical Theology

Revelation

Gospel of John and 1–3 John

Matthew and Mark

Luke and Acts

Paul

Other New Testament Voices

Conclusion

Revelation and Systematic Theology

The Trinitarian Founding of the Church

The Worship of the Saints

Missionary Ecclesiology

The Witness of the Martyrs

Israel and the Nations

Conclusion

Salvation

Revelation and Biblical Theology

Revelation

Gospel of John and 1–3 John

Matthew and Mark

Luke and Acts

Paul

Other New Testament Voices

Conclusion

Revelation and Systematic Theology

Salvation, Trinity, and Divine Pathos

Atonement: Exclusion and Embrace

An Ecumenical Geometry of Salvation

Conclusion

Eschatology

Revelation and Biblical Theology

Revelation

John

Matthew and Mark

Luke and Acts

Paul

Other New Testament Voices

Conclusion

Revelation and Systematic Theology

The Necessity of Eschatology

The Question of Apocalyptic

The Delay of Christ’s Coming

The Ultimate Embrace

Uttering the Unutterable

Conclusion

Bibliography

Index of Names

Index of Subjects

Index of Biblical and Other Ancient References

Preface

Every book has a story, and this book has a particularly long and winding one. We should perhaps confess from the outset that we never intended to write a commentary such as this on the book of Revelation. Having grown up in the apocalyptic tradition of Pentecostal spirituality, where the return of Jesus occupied a not insignificant place in the theological heart of the movement as part of the fivefold gospel that proclaims Jesus as Savior, Sanctifier, Holy Spirit Baptizer, Healer, and Soon Coming King, we were keenly attuned to the importance of eschatology and the unrivaled role played in it by the book of Revelation. This doctrine was the subject of countless sermons, lessons, lectures, and prophecy talks that we encountered, not to mention films, books, tracts, and larger-than-life charts! All of these combined to create within us a robust respect for those who could divine their way through current events by means of biblical prophecy. Rumors about government checks mistakenly sent to unsuspecting citizens that bore the number 666 circulated with a surprising degree of regularity, likewise the naming of world leaders who seemed to fit characteristics of the antichrist, speculations about the relationship between the ten kings of Rev 17 and the European Common Market (as it was known in those days), as well as fears with regard to bar codes and more — all combined to create a heightened sense of interest in signs of the coming end of the world.

But despite our early interest and sympathy with such attempts to understand end-time prophecy, problems with the script began to emerge. Too many prophetic predictions and pronouncements by those in the know proved to be off the mark, with little acknowledgment of mistaken notions and little to no reflection about the significance of such missteps. As we began our interpretive and spiritual journey further into biblical studies, we discovered that a straightforward reading of Scripture often proved not to fit the interpretations we were hearing; rather, it became apparent that interpreters were forcing Scripture into a preexisting template. Eventually we learned that some specific words essential to this narrative, like antichrist, did not appear in Revelation at all nor elsewhere in Scripture with their popular meaning. At the same time, we found certain academic approaches to Revelation were often beholden to their own scripts, discounting portions or emphases of the text that did not fit with their own more nuanced interpretations. Not surprisingly, the Apocalypse remained for us a closed book, about which we thought it best simply to steer clear.

It was Rick Moore who first mentioned that I (John Christopher Thomas) should one day turn my attention to the Apocalypse, a suggestion I laughingly dismissed. But as I look back, Rick’s words proved to be a catalyst in helping me to discern that God was calling me to this fascinating part of Scripture. Other encouragements would follow. One day in chapel at the seminary where I teach, Vladimir Mourashkine, a student from the former Soviet Union, gave a testimony about his life and ministry. Vladimir, who had experienced imprisonment and other forms of persecution at the hands of the Communist government for being a Pentecostal Christian, began to rehearse the history of Russia by means of the story line found in Revelation. Although there were aspects of the story that did not seem to fit for me as well as they did for him, I was enraptured by his words and began to think more deeply about how the book sounds and what it means in parts of the world where people do not have the luxury of speculating leisurely about end-time events. The other event that had a significant impact on me was reading Richard Bauckham’s The Theology of the Book of Revelation. This was far and away the best work I had ever read on Revelation, and it gave me reason to ponder the book more intently from a literary and theological vantage point. The cumulative effect of these events caused me to be open to the possibility of working on this distinctive book of the NT.

The very first person to whom I verbalized the conviction that the Lord was preparing me to do something on Revelation was my friend Max Turner, who (along with Joel Green) promptly offered me the opportunity to contribute a volume to Eerdmans’ Two Horizons New Testament Commentary (THNTC) series. But the offer was not to write on Revelation — it had already been assigned to someone else! Not long after agreeing to work with the THNTC project on the other volume, however, I was asked to consider writing the volume on Revelation instead, as plans with a different author had fallen through. As I began work on the commentary, I soon enlisted my good friend Pentecostal theologian Frank Macchia to join me in the endeavor — a partnership that has been enjoyable and enriching from the beginning.

I (FRANK D. MACCHIA) FIRST ENTERED the project while giving lectures at the Pentecostal Theological Seminary, Cleveland, Tennessee, where my friend Chris Thomas (as his friends call him) taught New Testament studies. He asked me to sit in on his seminar, which happened to be on the theology of the Apocalypse. The lively discussion of which I was privileged to be a part and the sermon I preached from Revelation that night at his church were the sparks that inspired him to ask me if I would be willing to join him in writing this commentary. I was initially hesitant to do so. After all, systematic theologians rarely consider participating in a biblical commentary. More typically, they write monographs on issues of Scripture and theology relating to the history of doctrine or some contemporary intellectual challenge. Three factors, however, made the project appealing to me. In the first place, I knew that systematic theology has at times been renewed by discoveries in the field of biblical studies, including recent studies on Revelation. Second, so much of the book of Revelation theologically seems to move against the stream of where Christian theology has gone over the past several decades. Themes of divine sovereignty or wrath are hardly topics of constructive theological work today, except perhaps as ideas to be critically assessed or avoided. Engaging in theological reflection on major topics of theology in the light of the message of Revelation was a challenge that was hard for me to resist. I assumed from the beginning that Revelation had a liberating message from the first chapter to the last, and my detailed study in this book has only confirmed that assumption. Third, the prospect of working with Chris was equally hard to forgo. I knew of his gifts as a New Testament scholar and was excited to join my reflective work in biblical and systematic theology to a stellar commentary on the text of Revelation. I have not been in any way disappointed. Moreover, his stimulation and encouragement with every chapter submission were invaluable. Please note that, in citing Scripture in the Theological Horizons section, I follow the NIV translation, with occasional minor modifications.

I am especially grateful to my wife, Verena, for her loving support as I worked hard over the last several years thinking theologically about Revelation. Without her constant encouragement, my scholarship would not at all be possible. My daughters, Desiree and Jasmine, had to endure patiently not having me as attentive to their needs as I normally would be because of the long hours I spent on this manuscript. I am grateful to them. My good friends Amos Yong and Dale Irvin, as well as students and colleagues at Vanguard University, Costa Mesa, California, were gracious conversation partners throughout the project (especially participants in my Theology of the Apocalypse seminar during the spring term of 2013), and I’m sure that my department chair, Rich Israel, looked the other way more than once as he found my office door locked and/or unoccupied while I hunkered down to bring my thoughts to print. I was also pleased to present some of my work at the 2011 Abbott Lectures (Pentecostal Theological Seminary) and in a paper given in San Francisco at the 2012 annual meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature (Hermeneutics of Christian Scripture section).

WHEN IT BECAME CLEAR that the draft of the commentary we produced was over the word limits to be included in the THNTC series, Eerdmans graciously consented to allow me (JCT) to publish the longer version through the Centre for Pentecostal Theology Press, without Frank’s theological essays, to be followed by this THNTC version, which, including Frank’s fine theological contributions, fit better within the size envisioned for the THNTC volumes. We are grateful to series editors Joel Green and Max Turner, as well as Eerdmans Publishing itself, for their longsuffering, consent, and support.

The completion of this commentary, written over the course of about a decade, would not have been possible without the generous provision of periodic study leaves offered by the Pentecostal Theological Seminary as part of the research provisions attached to the Clarence J. Abbott Chair of Biblical Studies, which has been my privilege to hold since its inception. I would especially like to thank for their support Steven Jack Land, who has been the seminary president during this period, as well as James P. Bowers, followed by Sang-Ehil Han, who each served as vice-president for academics during a good portion of this period.

For the most part the commentary portion was written at Tyndale House in Cambridge and at the Centre for Pentecostal Theology on the grounds of the Pentecostal Theological Seminary. Both of these research facilities are ideal places for such work. The writing process itself has been the most exhilarating and exhausting experience of my life! At so many points I have simply been overwhelmed by the literary artistry and theological depth found in Revelation. I found it to be an overpowering vision that subverts any temptation to make it manageable or to tame its contents. My own attempt has been to offer a literary and theological reading of the text that seeks to discern the effect of the text on its hearers, both implied and actual. The reader should note that, unless otherwise indicated, all citations of Scripture in the commentary section are my own translation.

This work has taken place within the local communities of which I am part. At my local church, the Woodward Church of God in Athens, TN, I have experienced extended and numerous times of prayer for this and the various research projects with which I am involved, dialogue with those in the community about the process and the results, and times of interaction where insights from a variety of sources have been processed. Here, I have had the opportunity to teach and preach through Revelation on several occasions. Just as it is difficult to put into words the effects one’s family has upon one’s scholarship, so it is difficult for me to describe the community’s role. For I have learned that the Spirit can and does speak in and through a variety of unexpected contexts and individuals. It has amazed me over the years that in my local church, a congregation where there is a place for many of those on society’s margins (the poor, the severely mentally challenged, ex-convicts, ex-addicts, those who have suffered racial discrimination, etc.), the Spirit speaks about certain issues that, while not always directly related to my scholarly work, often have a profound impact upon it. At the seminary the project has been helped along by careful readings of the developing drafts by my students over the years, as well as the resulting intensive conversations about the meaning of Revelation and the hearing here proposed. Such dialogue has taken place in the Apocalypse seminar that has been offered on a yearly basis, as well as the Abbott lectures and various Ministers Week seminar presentations.

It has also been my happy privilege to have been invited to share portions of this work at a variety of venues both academic and popular, including the Society for Pentecostal Studies, the Society of Biblical Literature, Bangor University (Bangor, Wales), Institutul Teologic Penticostal (Bucharest, Romania), Regent University (Virginia Beach, VA), Southeastern University (Lakeland, FL), and Renovatus (Charlotte, NC). These opportunities have also led to improvements in the text.

Finally, I should like to thank a variety of people for their assistance along the way. My colleagues at the Pentecostal Theological Seminary, where I have served full-time since 1982, have contributed to the creation of a wonderful environment in which to pursue constructive Pentecostal theology. Students of my Apocalypse seminar have been energetic dialogue partners, spotting all manner of errors in the drafts, questioning points of interpretation, offering helpful suggestions, as well as prodding me to rethink certain conclusions. Their contributions are hard to overestimate, and I thank them here for their dialogue. Special mention should be made of Steven Spears and Trina Sills, who meticulously read the manuscript, calling my attention to the many aspects in need of revision, as well as Steffen Schumacher, for his careful reading of parts of the manuscript. Thanks are also due to graduate assistants Larry Fleckner, Christopher Brewer, Andy Dimbi, and Sarah Cassell, also doctoral student David Johnson, for work on the indexes for this project. Special thanks are also due Craig Noll of Eerdmans for his detailed and meticulous editing of the manuscript.

My partner on the THNTC volume, Frank Macchia, has contributed very much indeed to this commentary. He has read the whole manuscript carefully more than once, has engaged me in constructive dialogue all along the way, and graciously encouraged me at every phase of the journey. Frank is my dear friend, brother in the Lord, and model constructive Pentecostal theologian.

My friend and colleague Lee Roy Martin is also worthy of special mention. He has been my dialogue partner on this and many other projects — always cheerful, always constructive, always dependable, and always ready with a helpful comment. In fact, he created an exquisite stained glass of the Apocalypse for me, the image of which appears on the back cover of the CPT Press commentary. He has also contributed to the project in many ways less visible, and I am indebted to him very much indeed. I have often thought that everyone needs a friend like Lee Roy. I have been blessed by our partnership in this endeavor, for which I here offer my heartfelt, public thanks.

The greatest debt of thanks is due my family. My parents, Wayne and Betty Fritts, have been a constant source of encouragement to me and my family, offering spiritual, emotional, and financial support, without which my academic study of Scripture would not have been possible. Their lives have been models of the best of Pentecostal spirituality, and they will never know how deeply their living testimonies have impacted me, my brother Mark, and our extended family, who rise up and call them blessed. The role of my wife, Barbara, in this project has been enormous. She is strong, industrious, hardworking, athletic, independent, beautiful, and deeply spiritual. Barb has sacrificed a great deal for this and many other projects without complaint, creating a home environment that has freed me to pursue the research and writing to which I have felt called. I thank her for all she has done and for what she means to me in our thirty-fifth year of married life together. I should also like to thank our children, Paige, Lori, David (Paige’s husband), and Chad (Lori’s husband), for bringing great joy to our lives, taking interest in my Revelation work, living with our frequent separations, and celebrating the completion of the work with me. Barb and I love them more than life itself and thank God for them daily as they continue their journey through life. We could not be prouder of their professional accomplishments and their spiritual development.

OUR PRAYER IS THAT this reading of Revelation and the resulting theological reflection will assist the church to rediscover and reappropriate this extremely important book in the canon of Scripture. May the Lord use it as he sees fit.

Abbreviations

Introduction

The book of Revelation is the most sensual document in the NT, filled with references to things seen, heard, smelled, touched, and even tasted! Its holistic sensory invitation has proven to be an embrace hard to resist for many, whether they be artists, musicians, preachers, filmmakers, visionaries, revolutionaries, ascetics, or religious enthusiasts. Yet its wide appeal, particularly on a popular level, is met with a skeptical response on the part of many with academic training in theology, who often write the book off as the domain of the lunatic fringe. For it is at the same time a book that purports to reveal things that shall soon take place, but its message is conveyed in such symbolic and cosmic language that there are nearly as many interpretations of the book as there are interpreters!

The purpose of this introduction is to aid readers in their reading of the text of Revelation and the commentary that follows. Here we give primacy of place to the text of the book and the introductory issues that arise from the text. The introduction begins with a section devoted to the structure and nature of Revelation, which gives way to an examination of what can be known about the audience of this book, and then on to issues of date and authorship. Owing to the effect of this text upon a wide variety of individuals, the introduction concludes with a section identifying some of the major streams of influence that can be traced back to Revelation.

Structure and Nature of the Book

Revelation is perhaps the most literarily complex and sophisticated document in the NT. A close reading reveals a vast array of extraordinarily impressive literary devices, which testify to the intricate design and brilliance of the work.¹ When discussing the literary character and structure of Revelation, it is important to remember that the document was apparently written to be heard while it was being read aloud (1:3). Part of the genius of the work is that the clues as to its structure seem to communicate at a couple of different levels. On the one hand, some of the literary devices are apparent on one’s first exposure to the document; on the other hand, many of these dimensions emerge slowly as the book is repeatedly read and heard over a prolonged period of time. Like so many other aspects of the text of Revelation, the blessing promised to those who hear the words of this prophecy promises more than meets the eye (or ear, in this case). It is not an overstatement to say that each hearing or reading of Revelation brings discoveries of connections and nuances previously unnoticed. Given the breadth and depth of its imagery, little wonder that it has fueled the imagination of so many interpreters.

Literary Markers Recognized by a First-Time Hearer of Revelation

Several aspects of the structure emerge after an initial encounter with the text of Revelation. It is clear from an initial hearing of the book that Revelation begins with a prologue. From this prologue the hearer learns that this Apocalypse of Jesus Christ, given by God to John, is a prophecy that results in a blessing for those who read, hear, and keep the things written in it (1:3). After these initial words, the prologue proceeds with a formula normally found at the beginning of an epistle. Here the standard A (author) to B (recipient) greeting occurs, with John being identified as the author, and the seven churches in Asia as the recipients. The greeting continues in expanded Christian fashion with the bestowal of grace and peace upon the readers. The prologue moves to a doxology and concludes with two prophetic words.

Another feature of the book’s structure, apparent from an initial encounter with the text, is the role and prominence of the Spirit. Soon after mention of the seven spirits before the throne (1:4), a pattern begins to emerge in which the Spirit plays a significant role. At four strategic locations (1:10; 4:2; 17:3; 21:10) the phrase ἐν πνεύµατι (en pneumati, in the Spirit) occurs. Each occurrence stands at the beginning of a new section of the book, and together they serve as the major structural markers in Revelation. Significantly, this phrase appears for the first time immediately after the close of the prologue.

Other major structural components one encounters in an initial hearing of Revelation are several series of sevens. There are seven prophetic messages to the seven churches of Asia (2:1–3:22), seven seals (6:1–8:5), seven trumpets (8:6–11:19), and seven plagues (15:1–16:21).² Obviously, these series are an important dimension of the text and contribute something to the overall structure of the book. In this regard, the first series of seven (messages) are unnumbered in their delineation and are not formally connected to the other series of sevens. It is also significant that this first series of sevens is followed immediately by the second occurrence of the phrase en pneumati (in the Spirit), indicating the beginning of a new section of Revelation. The other three series of sevens are each individually enumerated in their description (first, second, third, etc.), and each of these series is formally connected to the others. To illustrate by means of computer software language, when one clicks on the icon of the seventh seal, the seven trumpets appear (8:1-2). Likewise, though not quite as explicit, when one clicks on the icon of the seventh trumpet (11:15-19), following the interlude of chapters 12–14, the seven bowls emerge (15:1). Thus, it would appear that these three series of sevens stand together structurally in the book. Confirming this idea is, immediately after the seventh bowl of plagues is poured out, the phrase en pneumati occurring for a third time, indicating the onset of the next major section in Revelation.

Additional structural markers that first-time hearers of Revelation will notice come in the form of the interludes that appear between the sixth and seventh seals (7:1-17) and between the sixth and seventh trumpets (10:1–11:14). In each case, these interludes seem to interrupt the flow of the document, at the least delaying the action being described. At the same time, such interludes draw attention to significant theological aspects of the text.³ Similarly, chapters 12–14 appear to interrupt the flow of the document, dividing the description of the seven trumpets (8:6–11:19) from that of the seven bowls (15:1–16:21). While chapters 12–14 do interrupt the flow of the document, they do have a structural significance, for they are connected thematically to the first two interludes, and the story line of 12–14 converges in 15:1 with the story line left off at 11:19. Suffice it to say at this point that these interludes would also make a structural impression upon first-time hearers of Revelation.

Near the end of the book the hearer encounters a contrast between two cities: Babylon, the great whore (17:1–21:8), and New Jerusalem, the bride of Christ (21:9–22:5). These sections are each marked by one of the seven angels with bowls of plagues speaking to John (17:1; 21:9), the phrase en pneumati (in the Spirit, 17:3; 21:10), and near-identical introductory statements (17:1-3; 21:9-10). Thus, the climax of the book is reached with a description of the destruction of Babylon and the descent from heaven and description of the New Jerusalem.

A final structural dimension of Revelation readily distinguishable to the first-time hearer is the book’s concluding epilogue (22:6-21). Not only does the epilogue serve as a balance to the opening prologue, but numerous terms and themes found in the prologue also reappear in the epilogue, offering an inclusio effect for the hearer.

The following structure emerges from the above clues available to first-time hearers:

1:1-8     Prologue

1:9–3:22  In the Spirit on the Lord’s Day

1:9-20  The Inaugural Vision of Jesus

2:1–3:22  The Seven Prophetic Messages to the Seven Churches of Asia

2:1-7  To the Angel of the Church in Ephesus

2:8-11  To the Angel of the Church in Smyrna

2:12-17  To the Angel of the Church in Pergamum

2:18-29     To the Angel of the Church in Thyatira

3:1-6  To the Angel of the Church in Sardis

3:7-13  To the Angel of the Church in Philadelphia

3:14-22  To the Angel of the Church in Laodicea

4:1–16:21  In the Spirit in Heaven

4:1–5:14  The Inaugural Vision of Heaven, the One Who Sits on the Throne, the Lamb, and the Scroll Sealed with Seven Seals

6:1–8:5    The Opening of the Scroll Sealed with Seven Seals

6:1-17  The Opening of the First Six Seals

7:1-17  The Interlude of the 144,000 and the Great Multitude

8:1-5  The Opening of the Seventh Seal and the Golden Altar

8:6–11:19  Seven Angels with Seven Trumpets

8:6–9:21   The Sounding of the First Six Trumpets

10:1–11:14 The Interlude of the Little Scroll and the Two Witnesses

11:15-19   The Sounding of the Seventh Trumpet

12:1–14:20  The Struggle of God’s People in Cosmic Perspective

12:1–13:1a  Signs in Heaven: The Woman Clothed with the Sun, and the Red Dragon

13:1b-18   The Two Beasts

14:1-20  The Lamb and the 144,000, the Harvest and the Winepress

15:1–16:21  Seven Angels with Seven Bowls of Plagues

15:1-8  Another Great Sign in Heaven: The Seven Angels

16:1-21   The Pouring Out of the Seven Bowls

17:1–21:8    In the Spirit — Carried to a Wilderness

17:1-18  The Woman on the Beast: Babylon the Whore

18:1-24  The Destruction of Babylon

19:1–21:8  From Babylon the Great to the New Jerusalem — from the Last Judgment to the New Creation

19:1-10  Rejoicing in Heaven and on Earth and the Marriage Supper of the Lamb

19:11-16   The King of Kings and Lord of Lords

19:17-21   Victory over the King’s Enemies

20:1-6    The Thousand-Year Reign

20:7-10  Satan’s Final Rebellion and Defeat

20:11-15   The Final Judgment

21:1-8  The Descent of the New Jerusalem

21:9–22:5  In the Spirit — Carried to a Great High Mountain: The Description of the New Jerusalem

22:6-21    Epilogue

Given this basic structure, which emerges from an initial exposure to Revelation, what other significant elements may be discerned from a more intensive engagement with the text? In addition to this broad structure, there are a number of places where the whole document, large sections, or smaller sections are connected to one another by means of similar or, in some cases, identical vocabulary or themes. For example, a comparison of the language of 1:1-3 with that of 22:6-7 reveals that these verses constitute an inclusio that bounds the entire book.

The revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him to show his servants what must soon take place. He made it known by sending his angel to his servant John, who testifies to everything he saw — that is, the word of God and the testimony of Jesus. Blessed is the one who reads the words of this prophecy, and blessed are those who hear it and take to heart what is written in it, because the time is near. (1:1-3)

The angel said to me, These words are trustworthy and true. The Lord, the God of the spirits of the prophets, sent his angel to show his servants the things that must soon take place. Behold, I am coming soon! Blessed is he who keeps the words of the prophecy in this book. (22:6-7)

A variety of terms used to describe Christ near the beginning of the book — his eyes were like flames of fire (1:14; 2:18), from his mouth came a sharp two-edged sword (1:16; 2:12, 16), he will rule with an iron scepter (2:26-27), he is the faithful and true witness (3:14) — converge in one passage near its end in describing the King of Kings and Lord of Lords (19:11-16). A final example of a literary device that serves to hold the entire book together is the occurrence of seven beatitudes, found at various places throughout the book (1:3; 14:13; 16:15; 19:9; 20:6; 22:7, 14).

Not only does one find techniques that help knit the entire book together, one also sees a similar phenomenon within a major section of the book. An example occurs in 4:1–16:21. This section, which is devoted primarily to the three series of sevens, is held together in part by a recurring phrase that expands in intensity as the section unfolds. Specifically, the flashes, sounds, and thunder that come from the throne in 4:5 become the thunder, sounds, flashes, and earthquake that come to earth from heaven when the angel casts down fire from the altar in 8:5. And then when God’s temple in heaven opens in 11:19, there come flashes, sounds, thunder, earthquake, and great hail. This recurring theme culminates in 16:18-21 when, after a voice from the throne says It is done, there come flashes, sounds, thunder, an earthquake greater than any experienced on earth before, and hailstones weighing 100 pounds (ταλαντιαία, talantiaia) each. Significantly, these phenomena do not occur together elsewhere in the book. Similarly, the interlude of chapters 12–14 is bounded on either side by great signs in the heavens. The interlude begins with a great sign was seen in heaven (12:1), and its conclusion gives way to and I saw another great and marvelous sign in heaven (15:1). In like fashion the ending of one section and beginning of another section can be conveyed by the occurrence of the same phrase on two separate occasions. The close of the central major section (4:1–16:21) and beginning of the next section (17:1–21:8) are signaled by the appearance of It is done in 16:17, while the close of the latter and beginning of the final major section in the book (21:9–22:5) are likewise signaled by It is done, in 21:6. Additionally, the same term can occur in a given section to convey a sense of movement from one ultimate domain to another. On seven occasions beginning with 13:1 through 15:2, the term εἶδον (eidon I saw) occurs and is used to convey a sense of movement from the sea, beside which the dragon stood, to the sea of glass, beside which stood those who had been victorious over the beast. The text says:

And I saw a beast coming out of the sea. (13:1)

And I saw another beast coming out of the earth. (13:11)

And I saw . . . the Lamb standing upon Mount Zion. (14:1)

And I saw another angel flying in mid-air. (14:6)

And I saw . . . one like the Son of Man sitting upon a cloud. (14:14)

And I saw another great and marvelous sign in heaven. (15:1)

And I saw what looked like a sea of glass, beside which were standing those who had been victorious over the beast. (15:2)

Another characteristic of the literary structure of Revelation is, on at least three occasions, two sections that come together at a transition point in the book overlapping with one another. This is the case where the seven seals give way to the seven trumpets (8:1-5), where the story line of the cosmic interlude converges with the story line of the seven bowls of plagues (15:1-4), and where the description of the New Jerusalem gives way to the epilogue (22:6-11). Such phenomena remind the hearer that, while major movements within the book may be discerned, the document stands together as a single visionary drama.

Revelation as Visionary Drama

Insofar as, through repeated hearings and readings of the book, the structure of Revelation emerges as a visionary drama, what would be conveyed to its hearers with regard to the kind of literature that is being heard and read? While differing aspects of this question receive more extensive treatment below, it is important initially to gain a sense of the way in which a hearer may have understood the document as a whole.

One of the first things evident to the hearer about the literary nature of Revelation is that it is designed for oral enactment.⁴ While it is legitimate to note that the document had to be read publicly owing to John’s absence on Patmos, such an explanation of the act of reading does not take into sufficient account the dramatic characteristics of Revelation. At every turn, there are indications that the book is designed for oral enactment.⁵ Evidence for this observation includes many of the literary features noted in the discussion with regard to the book’s structure, but it is not confined to them. In addition to the utilization of various numbered series (sevens, threes, and twos), the multiple use of the en pneumati (in the Spirit) phrase, and the employment of periodic interludes, there are numerous other indicators. For example, the images and places used to convey the message of the book are both intriguing and memorable. To this feature we might add the first person address of both John and Jesus, the generous use of hymns, and, at each stage of the book, a fuller revelation about Jesus. The liberal use of colors in Revelation tends to confirm that the work is designed for oral enactment. By way of illustration, the relatively colorless Fourth Gospel, which mentions only white and purple, pales in comparison with the colors of Revelation, which include gold/yellow, white, scarlet, red, purple, silver, green, and black. Given the dramatic characteristics of Revelation, some interpreters have gone so far as to argue that it was constructed to be staged in ways not unlike the Greek tragedies.⁶

The point of these observations is to underscore the fact that, first and foremost, the hearers and readers of Revelation would have experienced this document as the oral enactment of a visionary drama. It is important to take up the issue at this point, for discussions that attempt to ascertain the literary genre of Revelation sometimes lose sight of this rather basic understanding of the document.

Part of the power of this visionary drama is that it creates for its hearers and readers a symbolic world offering an alternate version of reality to that experienced by the Asian churches in the Roman world.⁷ This alternate reality offers heaven as the vantage point from which to assess the reality of this world and its powers. The significance of such an alternate reality is difficult to overestimate, for it empowers its hearers and readers to confront their present reality as faithful witnesses who have an active role to play in the conversion of the nations, which lies before them. But there is more. The hearers and readers are not only invited to hear or view this symbolic world, but also to experience it by means of participation. For throughout this oral enactment, the hearers and readers find themselves responding vicariously along with John as he turns, sees, hears, and looks. As the visions of the one who sits on the throne and of the Lamb unfold, the hearers and readers find themselves in the spontaneous acts of worship that erupt on numerous occasions.

The logical place for such oral enactment is the context of worship within the community. Not only would this be consistent with the common practice found across early Christianity of reading significant communiqués before the entire community (1 Thess 5:27; Eph 6:21; Col 4:16; Phlm 2), but it would also be the most appropriate context for hearing, testing, and discerning prophetic utterances. This would be true both of prophetic utterances of a spontaneous nature and of prophetic messages (including visions) that, while experienced outside the context of the community’s worship, would be brought to it for the appropriate response.⁸

This phenomenological understanding of Revelation, as orally enacted visionary drama, goes a long way toward defining for the hearers and readers the kind of literature Revelation is. Within this understanding of how the hearers and readers would experience Revelation as visionary drama, other questions with regard to the issue of the literary genre of the book may be pursued.

Technically, this visionary drama takes the form of a circular letter to the seven churches of Asia (1:4, 11; 22:16). The book bears the marks of the standard A (author) to B (recipient) greeting near the beginning of the book (1:4) and concludes with the epistolary formula May the grace of the Lord Jesus be with you all (22:21). Although the content of Rev 2–3 is sometimes described as the seven letters to the seven churches, in point of fact Revelation is a single circular letter that includes seven prophetic messages to the seven churches of Asia. This literary device means that, while each church is informed by the specific message addressed to it, at the same time they are all informed by all the prophetic messages, which are to be read by all the churches. The theological reason that such a visionary drama takes the form of an epistle is owing to the command received by John in his inaugural vision.

That which you see, write in a book and send it to the seven churches, to Ephesus and to Smyrna and to Pergamum and to Thyatira and to Sardis and to Philadelphia and to Laodicea. (1:11)

Among other things, the epistolary form, as does the command to write in a book everything seen, serves to reinforce the idea that this visionary drama stands together and is to be heard and read as a whole. John is told at the beginning to write down in a book all the things he sees, which conveys to the hearers and readers that John is to embark on a journey. For those who care to join him in this journey, perhaps his book will give the impression of being a travelogue.⁹

Revelation as Christian Prophecy

A number of indicators in the text reveal that this visionary drama, which takes the form of a circular letter, is a piece of early Christian prophecy. Such an identification comes very early in the book, where John describes the volume as the words of this prophecy (1:3). This description is repeated near the close of the book as well, where again Revelation is referred to as the words of this prophecy (22:7). These phrases form an inclusio that bounds the book on either side, indicating how the entire epistle is to be heard and read. This identification of Revelation as a prophecy is also confirmed by the words of the angel who instructs John, Do not seal up the words of this prophecy (22:10). Finally, the book closes with a set of warnings that further underscore the book’s description of itself as a prophetic book.

I witness (to) all who hear the words of the prophecy of this book: if anyone adds unto them, God will add upon them the plagues written (described) in this book. And if anyone takes away from the words of the book of this prophecy, God will take away his part of the tree of life and the city of the saints (holy ones), which are written (described) in this book. (22:18-19)

Not only does the book describe itself as prophecy, but also a number of passages in the book look very much to be individual prophetic utterances. These include the following:

the words of God in 1:8 — I am the Alpha and Omega . . . who is, and who was, and who is to come;

the prophetic messages of Jesus to the seven churches in 2:1–3:22;

the words of the Spirit in 14:13 — Yes, says the Spirit, in order that they might rest from their labor; for their works follow after them;

the words of Jesus in 16:15 — Behold, I come as a thief! Blessed is the one who stays awake and keeps one’s garments (pure), in order that he might not walk naked and they see his private parts; and

the numerous words of Jesus in 22:7-20.¹⁰

In addition to the overt descriptions of the book as prophecy and examples of prophetic utterances in the book, several textual indicators suggest that the context from which the book originates is itself a prophetic one. Mention is made in the book of at least one rival prophet(ess) (2:20). Other statements make it clear that John does not function alone in his prophetic activity, for he and others are addressed near the end of Revelation by an angel who says, I am a fellow servant with you and your brothers the prophets (22:9). This same group (possibly including the OT prophets) may well be in view a few verses earlier when the angel makes reference to the Lord, the God of the spirits of the prophets (22:6). Other references to these prophets in Revelation include 11:18; 16:6; 18:20, 24 (cf. also references to prophets in 10:7 and 11:10). Taken together, this textual evidence makes one thing very clear: the prophecy that is Revelation comes from a prophetic community. This fact, in and of itself, would add some understanding to the public reading of the words of this prophecy to the community.

Finally, it should also be noted that this prophecy has a number of affinities with OT prophecy. Not only does Revelation resemble a number of OT prophetic books in formal ways (i.e., by inclusion of call narratives and the emphasis upon the Word of God and the visions),¹¹ but it also exhibits a similar prophetic consciousness on the part of the author.¹² In fact, it appears that John so sees himself as heir to the OT prophetic tradition that he, as the OT prophets before him, inherits earlier prophecies, the reinterpretation of which figures prominently in his own prophecy. This may be illustrated by the way in which the prophecy concerning Babylon in Rev 18:1–19:8 echoes every message against Babylon found in the OT, as well as two messages against Tyre.¹³ Owing to the many similarities between Revelation and the OT prophetic tradition, John’s own sense of prophetic consciousness, and the scope and magnitude of Revelation, one writer has described the book as the climax of prophecy.¹⁴

Revelation and the Apocalyptic Tradition

It is also clear from several aspects of the text of Revelation that there is some kind of relationship between Revelation and the apocalyptic tradition. In fact, for some interpreters the evidence for this is so strong that it is not uncommon to find commentaries that address the issue of apocalyptic as its first order of business.¹⁵ What evidence is there for seeing a relationship between the two, and what is the nature of the relationship?

Perhaps one of the most significant clues that Revelation has strong connections to the apocalyptic tradition is its being the first document we know of to use the word ἀποκάλυψις (apokalypsis, revelation) as part of its title. Whatever the relationship between this book of prophecy and the apocalyptic tradition may be, many later documents follow Revelation in using the word apokalypsis as part of its title. While there is some debate as to the precise meaning of the phrase an apocalypse of Jesus Christ (an issue that will be addressed later), it should be noted that there is some degree of circularity in assuming that this document, from which an entire genre of literature takes its name, is an apocalyptic document, merely because the word apocalypse is part of its title.¹⁶

Assessing the nature of the relationship between Revelation and the apocalyptic tradition is complicated because the broad boundaries and specific characteristics of the apocalyptic genre are anything but fixed; they are still greatly debated within the scholarly community.¹⁷ Despite the inherent obstacles involved in ascertaining the relationship between Revelation and the apocalyptic tradition, perhaps the following observations will be of some assistance in sorting out this difficult issue.

First, it should be noted that Revelation is similar to the apocalyptic tradition in several respects. The fantastic imagery employed in Revelation, among other things, reminds one of the imagery of a number of other apocalyptic documents. This similarity suggests, at the least, that Revelation and a variety of apocalyptic documents draw from the same conceptual well.¹⁸ Like the broader apocalyptic tradition, Revelation conveys a transcendent perspective about this world and its history, allowing hearers and readers the opportunity to view this world and its history from the perspective of heaven. Revelation also shares with other apocalyptic documents an interest in the question, Who is Lord over the world?¹⁹ In addition, Revelation is decidedly eschatological in orientation.²⁰

At the same time, there are decided differences between Revelation and what has come to be known as the apocalyptic tradition. One of the best-known differences is that the author of Revelation writes in his own name, unlike the documents normally considered as part of the apocalyptic tradition, which are pseudonymous with regard to authorship. If Revelation is to be considered as part of the apocalyptic tradition, it stands virtually alone in this regard.²¹ Perhaps this anomaly is to be explained by John’s considering his work to be a book of prophecy, or perhaps it has something to do with his closer temporal proximity to the time of Jesus’ earthly ministry.

Another difference between Revelation and the apocalyptic tradition is evident in the use of visual symbolism. Generally speaking, there is more visual symbolism in Revelation than (other) apocalyptic texts. At the same time, there is a virtual absence of angelic interpretation present in Revelation, as opposed to other apocalypses. Additionally, the generally short and self-contained vision normally found in only one part of an apocalyptic document virtually encompasses the whole of this one. A final difference is that, unlike the book of Daniel, for example — where Daniel is instructed by the angel to close up and seal up the words of the scroll until the time of the end. . . . Go your way, Daniel, because the words are closed up and sealed until the end of time (Dan 12:4, 9) — John is instructed, Do not seal up the words of the prophecy of this book, because the time is near (Rev 22:10).²² Revelation is an open book rather than a closed one.

Given the differences and similarities of Revelation to the apocalyptic tradition, what might be concluded about the nature of their relationship? It is important to remember that the hearers and readers of this book would not make the kind of hard and fast distinctions between the prophetic and apocalyptic genres that contemporary students of Scripture sometimes do.²³ It is clear that John and his hearers would be familiar with a number of the symbols, imagery, and language found in apocalyptic documents of the time. However, the use of similar imagery does not necessarily imply a literary dependence but suggests that these ideas were in the air breathed by John and his audience. They often draw from the same conceptual well but utilize the concepts to suit their own purposes. In other words, regardless of the ambiguity surrounding the relationship of Revelation to the apocalyptic tradition, it appears that the hearers of Revelation would move easily in this apocalyptic conceptual world.²⁴

Revelation as Intertext

If there are questions about the extent of the relationship of Revelation to the apocalyptic tradition, there are no such questions with regard to its relationship to the OT. Revelation is overflowing with OT imagery, ideas, and vocabulary. Yet, unlike in many NT documents, by most reckonings there is not a single direct quotation of the OT in this book. A reading of Revelation reveals that its utilization of the OT is not primarily concerned with respecting the OT context of a given idea, thought, or term.²⁵ At the same time, the hearer of Revelation soon discovers that the OT is more than a language arsenal from which the writer constructs his own theological statement or prophetic vision.²⁶

Rather, the relationship between Revelation and the OT is a much more dynamic phenomenon. Revelation is better seen as an intertext where a variety of texts (including those of the writer, John!) converge and/or intersect. The intersection of OT texts, ideas, imagery, and vocabulary with John’s visionary experience results in an intertext where echoes and allusions to the OT (among other things) provide shape and definition of meaning to the vision that is Revelation. Sometimes these allusions are like loud voices calling out to the hearers, while at other times they are no more than mere whispers to which the hearers’ ears must be attuned or they will be missed altogether. Such a dynamic understanding of the relationship between Revelation and the OT means that no mere listing of allusions or echoes to the OT does justice to this dimension of Revelation. For everything found in Revelation is influenced, in one way or another, by the OT.²⁷ Specifically, one must ask how the OT context interacts with the NT context.²⁸ Discernment of these echoes and allusions is called for here, perhaps in ways not unlike the discernment called for in the receiving and recording of this prophecy by John and the task of the circle of prophets mentioned earlier. However, it is safe to say that any hearers or readers of Revelation who neglect the voice of the OT do so at their own peril.

The Canonical Location and Function of Revelation

Whatever the historical events that resulted in the current New Testament canon, it is clear that the interpretive role and influence of a given book have significance within the structure of the overall canon. In this section we consider certain observations about the role and function of Revelation in the New Testament canon.

First, though, we should note that not all groups of Christians include Revelation as part of their canon.²⁹ It should also be observed that, while Revelation stands last in the vast preponderance of canonical lists, the book follows the Gospels in a few listings.³⁰ Two reasons may account for such a location. First, since Revelation contains so many words of the resurrected Jesus, we can understand how it made some sense to locate the book after the documents that give careful attention to his pre-ascension words.³¹ At the same time, the close affinity that exists between the Fourth Gospel and Revelation may also account for the latter being drawn to a position in closer canonical proximity to the former.³²

Owing to its unique standing as the last book in the biblical canon, Revelation functions on several canonical levels. The best way to approach this topic is perhaps to structure these canonical reflections in a way that moves from Revelation’s function in connection with the books in closest canonical proximity to its broader function in the metanarrative of the whole Bible.

Revelation is quite obviously connected canonically to the Epistles, the documents that precede it in the NT; as noted earlier, it