Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology

By Swapan Kumar Haldar

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology, second edition, presents the essentials of both disciplines through an approach accessible to industry professionals, academic researchers, and students alike. This new edition emphasizes the relationship between rocks and minerals, right from the structures created during rock formation through the economics of mineral deposits. While petrology is classified on the lines of geological evolution and rock formation, mineralogy speaks to the physical and chemical properties, uses, and global occurrences for each mineral, emphasizing the need for the growth of human development.

The primary goal is for the reader to identify minerals in all respects, including host-rocks, and mineral deposits, with additional knowledge of mineral-exploration, resource, extraction, process, and ultimate use. To help provide a comprehensive analysis across ethical and socio-economic dimensions, a separate chapter describes the hazards associated with minerals, rocks, and mineral industries, and the consequences to humanity along with remedies and case studies.

New to the second edition: includes coverage of minerals and petrology in extra-terrestrial environments as well as case studies on the hazards of the mining industry.

• Addresses the full scope of core concepts of mineralogy and petrology, including crystal structure, formation and grouping of minerals and soils, definition, origin, structure and classification of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
• Features more than 250 figures, illustrations and color photographs to vividly explore the fundamental principles of mineralogy and petrology
• Offers a holistic approach to both subjects, beginning with the formation of geologic structures that is followed by the hosting of mineral deposits and the exploration and extraction of lucrative, usable products that improve the health of global economies
• Includes new content on minerals and petrology in extraterrestrial environments and case studies on hazards in the mining industry

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Jul 29, 2020
• ISBN: 9780323851367

Swapan Kumar Haldar

1. Academic qualification: B. Sc (Hons) 1963, and M. Sc (Geology) 1965, Calcutta University, D. Sc, 1983, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India. 2. Professional Affiliation: Life Member of Mining Geological and Metallurgical Institute of India, Indian Geological Congress and Indian Society of Earth Sciences. 3. Work Experiences: 50 Yrs Professional and Academic Experience in oil and base-noble metal exploration and mining at various capacities at ESSO, Hindustan Copper Ltd, Hindustan Zinc Ltd, Anglo American (P) Ltd, Gold Stream Mining NL/ IMX Resource Ltd, Australia and BIL Infratech Ltd, Guest Faculty Sukhadia University Udaipur. 4. Exploration Projects and Mines visited abroad: His profession has often required visits and interaction with experts of zinc, lead, gold, tin, chromium, nickel and platinum mines and exploration camps of Australia-Tasmania, Canada, USA, Germany, Portugal, UK, France, Italy, The Netherlands, Switzerland, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Bangladesh and Nepal. 5. Research Projects as Principal Investigator (i) DST project in Geostatistical Applications, numerical processing, software development and derivation of parameters for mine planning of base metal deposits at IIT Kharagpur (1979-80) leading to PhD Degree (1983). (ii) DST project: HR/UR/22/2002 on “Exploration modeling for base / noble metals with special reference to sediment hosted Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag deposits in the northwestern Indian Shield” at Presidency College Kolkata (2003-06). (iii) DST Project: HR/UR/29/2007 on “Geology of Platinum-Nickel-Chromium mineralization: Resource evaluation and future potential”, at Presidency College, Kolkata (2008-2010). 6. Examination conducted: (i) Regular question papers for Mineral Exploration, Geo-statistics and Mining Geology for M. Sc Applies Geology of Sukharia University, Udaipur, Presidency University, Calcutta University, Indian School of Mines and Institution of Engineers. (ii) Examined 4 M. Sc Thesis of Delhi and Calcutta University. (iii) Examined including Viva of 5 PhD Thesis in Geostatistical Applications of Mineral Deposits at Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, IIT Mumbai and Kharagpur. 7. Current Assignments: Since 2003, Emeritus Scientist, Post Graduate Applied Geology teaching of Mineral Exploration at Presidency and Calcutta University, Kolkata, and industry related teaching at Indian school of Mines, Dhanbad. 8. Recipient: Dr. J. Coggin Brown Memorial (Gold) Medal for Geological Sciences (1993-94) by Mining Geological and Metallurgical Institute of India. 9. Authored 3 books and 40 publications: 1. Haldar, SK. Exploration Modeling of Base Metal Deposits, Elsevier Publication; 2007, p. 227. 2. Haldar, SK, Mineral Exploration - Principles and Applications, Elsevier Publication; 2013, p. 374. 3. Haldar, SK and Josip Tišljar, Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology, Elsevier Publication; 2013, p. 356. Dr Haldar has a unique professional blend of mineral exploration, evaluation and mineral economics with an essence of classroom teaching of postgraduate students of two celebrity Universities over the last 1 decade. Annexure- I 1. Haldar, S. K., 2011, Platinum–Nickel-Chromium: Resource Evaluation and Future Potential Targets, IGC International Congress on New Paradigms of Exploration and Sustainable Mineral Development on Vision 2050, p. 67 - 82. 2. Haldar. S. K., 2010, Geostatistical Applications in Base Metal Deposits - A case Study, Science and Economics of Rocks - A Primer on Mineral geostatiscs, ed: Sarkar, B. C., pp. 95-109. 3. Haldar, S. K., 2009, The First Fifty Year’s Record and A New Beginning in Mineral Discovery in India with special Reference to Base Metals, in Shrivastava, K. L., eds., Economic Mineralization, Scientific Publisher (India), Jodhpur, pp. 442-450. 4. Haldar, S. K., 2008, Resource prediction model – Application of Zipf’s Law, National Seminar, Ore Body Modeling for Genesis, Predictive Metallogeny and Resource Analysis”, Udaipur, (Abstract), pp. 10-11 5. Haldar, S. K., 2008, Investment, Risk and Sensitivity Analyses in Exploration Regime, Executive Development Program, ISM University, Dhanbad. 6. Haldar, S. K., 2008, Base and noble metals in northwestern Indian Shield : Essence of stratigraphy and tectonics in mineral search, International conference on tectonics of the Indian Subcontinent (TOIS), Indian Association for Gondwana Research Conference Series 5, Institute of Technology, Mumbai, (Abstract Volume, pp 90-91. 7. Haldar, S. K., 2007, Exploration Optimisation Using Geostatistics - A Case Study of Sequential Evaluation, Indian School of Mines University, Dhanbad, pp 88-94. 8. Haldar, S. K., 2007, Orebody Modelling : Geostatistical assessment of Mine sub-block and grade forecast system – A case study, Indian School of Mines University, Dhanbad, pp.80-87, 9. Haldar, S. K., 2006, Concepts of deposit – orebody modelling with case study of Zn-Pb-Ag deposits, Rajasthan, (Abstract), National Seminar on “Evaluation of Mineral Resources of India”, 8th National Convention of Association of Economic Geologists, at Visakapatnam in March ’06, pp. 2. 10. Haldar, S. K., 2005c, Exploration Modeling for Base and Noble Metals with special reference to Sediment hosted lead-zinc-copper gold Deposits in the Northwestern Indian Shield, DST Project HR/ UR/2002,176p. 11. Haldar, S. K., 2005b, Exploration Modeling for sediment hosted Lead-Zinc Deposits in the Northwestern Indian shield – A logical dynamic approach, National seminar on “Mineral exploration, mining and mineral beneficiation : A road map to VISION 2020”, Mining Engineers’ Association of India, Tamilnadu Chapter, pp. 66–84. 12. Haldar, S. K., 2005a, Exploration Mode

Book preview

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology

Second Edition

S.K. Haldar

The Mining Geological and Metallurgical Institutes (MGMI), Kolkata, West Bengal, India

The Indian Geological Congress (IGC)

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

About the author

Preface

List of acronyms

General

Minerals

Metals/semimetals/nonmetals

Measures

Chapter 1. Minerals and rocks

Abstract

Chapter Outline

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Importance of minerals, rocks, and soils to society

1.3 Minerals

1.4 Rocks

1.5 Mineral resources

References

Chapter 2. Extraterrestrial systems

Abstract

Chapter Outline

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Definition

2.3 The Sun

2.4 Planetary formation: physical and chemical aspects

2.5 Space exploration (programs and agencies)

2.6 Status of space exploration and potential for future mineral exploration in space

2.7 Techniques for mineral exploration in space

2.8 Space mining and processing of resources

2.9 Sum up

References

Chapter 3. Basic mineralogy

Abstract

Chapter Outline

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Internal structure of crystals and their properties

3.3 Chemical and physical properties of minerals

3.4 Polymorphism and isomorphism

3.5 Overview of the main rock-forming minerals

References

Chapter 4. Basic petrology

Abstract

Chapter Outline

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Interior structure of the Earth

4.3 Classification of rocks

4.4 Origin of Earth and theory of plate tectonics

References

Chapter 5. Igneous rocks

Abstract

Chapter Outline

5.1 Origin of igneous rocks

5.2 Classification of igneous rocks

5.3 Main group of igneous rocks and their composition

References

Chapter 6. Sedimentary rocks

Abstract

Chapter Outline

6.1 Function, significance, classification, and transformation

6.2 Sedimentary rock formation

6.3 Texture and structure of sedimentary rocks

6.4 Classification of sediments and sedimentary rocks

6.5 Clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks

6.6 Volcaniclastic rock

6.7 Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks

6.8 Uses

References

Chapter 7. Metamorphic rocks

Abstract

Chapter Outline

7.1 Origin and structures of metamorphic rocks

7.2 Types of metamorphism and classification of metamorphic rocks

7.3 Rocks of dynamic metamorphism

7.4 Rocks of contact metamorphism

7.5 Rocks of regional metamorphism

7.6 Rocks of plutonic metamorphism

References

Chapter 8. Precipitation systems of major sedimentary bodies—collector rocks for oil and gas

Abstract

Chapter Outline

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Main forms of collector sedimentary bodies in clastites

8.3 Main forms of collector sedimentary bodies in carbonate rocks

References

Chapter 9. Mineral deposits: host rocks and genetic model

Abstract

Chapter Outline

9.1 Definition

9.2 Classification of minerals

9.3 Classification of mineral deposits

9.4 Host rocks

9.5 Industry specifications

References

Chapter 10. Mineral resource assessment and economic parameters

Abstract

Chapter Outline

10.1 Definition

10.2 Parameters

10.3 Resource estimation procedure

10.4 Resource classification

10.5 Mineral economics

10.6 Over view—a complete cycle

References

Further Reading

Chapter 11. Hazards of minerals—rocks and sustainable development

Abstract

Chapter Outline

11.1 Definition

11.2 Natural hazards

11.3 Hazards of minerals

11.4 Hazards of rocks

11.5 Hazards in the mineral industry

11.6 Hazards of the mineral industry and human consequences

11.7 Sustainable mineral development

References

Index

Copyright

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Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

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Dedication

Weapons cannot shred the soul, nor can fire burn it.

Water cannot wet it, nor can the wind dry it.

Bhagavat Gita 2.23

Dedicated in the memory of never-born, eternal, ever-abide, and primeval soul of my parents: Late Dr. Sachindra Nath Haldar (1897–1951), and Late Smt. Durga Rani Haldar (1910–1991), who inspired me to serve the creation of Nature (God) with all humility, and selflessly.

About the author

S. K. Haldar (Swapan Kumar Haldar) has been a practicing veteran in the field of Mineral Exploration and Metal Mining for the past four and a half decades. He received BSc (Hons) and MSc degrees from Calcutta University and PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. The major part of his career since 1966 has been focused on base and noble metals exploration/mining with short stopovers at Standard Oil (ESSO) Petroleum, Hindustan Copper Limited, and finally, Hindustan Zinc Limited, where he has undertaken various technical roles and managerial responsibilities. Since 2003, he has been Emeritus Professor with the Department of Applied Geology, Presidency University, Kolkata, and has taught mineral exploration to postgraduate students of the Applied Geology Department and often at the University of Calcutta and Indian Institute of Technology, Dhanbad. He has been a consultant with international exploration entities, namely, Goldstream Mining NL/IMX Resources Ltd., Australia, and Binani Industries Limited (BIL) Infratech Ltd., India. His profession has often required visits to mines and exploration camps of Australia–Tasmania, Canada, the United States, Germany, Portugal, France, Italy, The Netherlands, Switzerland, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Jordan, and Israel.

He is a life fellow of The Mining Geological and Metallurgical Institutes (MGMI) of India, and the Indian Geological Congress (IGC). He is the recipient of Dr. J. Coggin Brown Memorial (Gold Medal) for Geological Sciences by MGMI. He has authored 40 technical papers and five books:

1. Exploration Modeling of Base Metal Deposits, 2007, Elsevier, p. 227.

2. Mineral Exploration—Principles and Applications, First Edition, 2013, Elsevier, p. 374.

3. Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology, 2014, Elsevier, p. 356.

4. Platinum–Nickel–Chromium Deposits: Geology, Exploration and Reserve Base, 2016, Elsevier, p. 322.

5. Mineral Exploration—Principles and Applications, Second Edition, 2018, Elsevier, p. 378.

He has a unique professional blend of mineral exploration, evaluation, and mineral economics with the essence of classroom teaching of postgraduate students of three celebrated universities over the past decades.

Preface

Be steadfast in the performance of your duty, O Arjun, abandoning attachment to success and failure. Such equanimity is called Yog.

Bhagavat Gita 2.48

It was early morning of December 14, 2018, and we are on a long flight to Los Angeles. Mineral Exploration—Principles and Applications—Second Edition released a couple of months ago. I finished the one semester Post Graduate teaching and evaluation in Presidency University just a day before. My mind and mood are looking for total relaxation with my grandchildren by visiting their school and playgrounds, and the Trader Joe’s grocery store daily for a cup of complementary coffee. My other desire was to caring for the flowers, fruits, vegetables, birds, and healthy chipmunk in their garden. I had to initiate my program accordingly, but… .

But Surat and Soumi had already arranged a program to visit Washington DC for one week during the ensuing Christ Mass holidays. It was indeed hectic, but a wonderful education tour to experience: The United States Capitol Hill, The White House, The Lincoln Memorial, The Washington Monument, The National Air and Space Museum, The National Museum of Natural History, The Botanical Garden, The Potomac River, The largest and most popular Luray caverns in Eastern America, and The Vedanta Society of Washington DC.

Before I could settle back, I received an invitation from Ms. Amy Saprio, Acquisitions Editor, Geosciences, if I can meet her at Elsevier, San Diego. I had already a long outstanding work experience with Amy. We reached her office, after a College Admission Tour of my granddaughter. We greet each other, a few photographs, and she took us for lunch nearby. Amy asked about my immediate future program. I have a long desire to write a book on Mineral Deposits of India, by which I can reach the Senior School Students and extend to College level. Amy replied that it can be done, but what about a Second Edition of Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology too. I added that Surat, my son-in-law, was inspiring me for a couple of years for writing on Extraterrestrial System, and that I will add a new chapter (Chapter 2: Extraterrestrial Systems) in the new edition. I complemented for the dedication of Ms. Amy in her profession with humility and here we go!

We completed the follow-up formalities, submitted the book proposal, got approval, signed the contract in two weeks, and started the preparations. Surat arranged dozens of books on planetary research and Space Mission. Soumi and Srishti arranged weekly visit to California Science Center to study the space modules, 3D movies on Apollo Space Missions, volcanism, earthquakes, mineral deposition under the sea, and exhibition on the City of Pompeii. The youngest member Srishta took me always to his Soccer and Tennis tournaments.

I expanded all the previous chapters with new dimensions with supporting images and included a new chapter on Extraterrestrial System. The chapters cover economic aspects of mineral deposits, hazards of minerals, and rocks. It includes sustainable development to make more meaningful applications and uses of minerals and rocks for the development of human society. The failures of mineral industry (mining and process plants) and its consequences to human life are discussed with global examples. The book is divided into 11 chapters in an orderly manner, such as Rocks and Minerals, Planetary System, Basic Mineralogy, Basic Petrology, Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Rocks, Precipitation Systems of Major Sedimentary Bodies—Collector Rocks for Oil and Gas, Mineral Deposits-Host Rocks, and Origin, Resource Assessment and Economic Aspects, and Hazards of Mineral Deposits and Sustainable Development.

The new Chapter 2, Extraterrestrial Systems, includes the concept of Universe in brief and Solar Planetary System beyond space and time. It describes the Sun, primary sources of heat and light energy, all the eight planets, dwarf planets, and their satellites, meteorites, and asteroid belts. The location of Extraterrestrial bodies with respect to the Sun, origin, composition, and internal structure are discussed and compared. The mother planet Earth is well explored from all angles. However, all the other planetary objects are explored in different scales by Countries under Space Program including human stepping on the Moon surface. The priority of resource-targets includes Metallic-Type Asteroids, Earth’s Moon, Mars, and Venus, Titan, Europa, and more. Earth’s Moon could either be a colony, our new abode, or a transit point (Launchpad) for future space mining mission, supported by building International Space Station as a stop-over for onward/return voyage to acquire distant terrestrial resources. My sincere thanks to my student Subham Sarkar for making all the line drawings in Chapter 2, and he is currently a research schooler in Indian Space Research Organisation.

The target readers are aimed at undergraduate and postgraduate students of Geology, Mining, Civil, Petroleum, and Aeronautic Engineering, and professionals interested in metallic and nonmetallic minerals, petroleum, and gas.

I am thankful to many of my colleagues for supporting me during the development of this book. The valuable and timely supports of reviewers Prof. Martin Hale and Prof. Bhabesh C. Sarkar are appreciated. I enjoyed to work with Ms. Sara Pianavilla, Editorial Project Manager, Elsevier, and I am thankful for her very positive attitude toward any critical issue and help out by resolving with alternative solutions. Ms. Swapna Praveen extended full support in copyright permission. My compliments to Ms. Kiruthika Govindaraju and her team for high quality of page making.

Traveling is my passion and learning is my wisdom. I always love traveling in different countries, see diverse landscapes, awe-inspiring nature, and meet people from different cultures. I capture them in my memory and snap surrounding images in my camera. Those images are frequently shared in my books. My wife, Swapna, takes me out of my routine. She is my source of inspiration that made me where I am today. My daughter Soumi and son-in-law Surat took me to see several parts of the United States known for geological marvels. My grandchildren, Srishti and Srishta, continue to teach me various aspects of nature. Thanks to all of them. Let my journey continue for eternity.

The Road Not Taken

I shall be telling this with a sigh

Somewhere ages and ages hence:

Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—

I took the one less traveled by,

And that has made all the difference.

Robert Frost (1916)

S.K. Haldar

March 13, 2020

Presidency University, Kolkata

List of acronyms

General

CAPEX Capital Expenditure

EUR Estimated Ultimate Recovery

GSI Geological Survey of India

JORC (Australasian) Joint Ore Reserves Committee

IBM Indian Bureau of Mines

MVT Mississippi Valley Type

OPEX Operating Expenditure

RSM Reservoir Simulation Model

SEDEX Sedimentary Exhalative

Sp. Gr Specific Gravity (g/cm³)

UNFC United Nations Framework Classification

USGS United State Geological Survey

USBM United State Bureau of Mines

STB Stock Tank Barrel

Minerals

Ch Chert

Cp Chalcopyrite

Cpx Clinopyroxene

Ga Galena

M Microcline

Po Pyrrhotite

Py Pyrite

Q Quartz

S Sericite/sericitization

Sp Sphalerite

Metals/semimetals/nonmetals

Ag Silver

Al Aluminium

As Arsenic

At Astatine

Au Gold

B Boron

Bi Bismuth

Br Bromine

C Carbon

Ca Calcium

Cd Cadmium

Ce Cerium

Cl Chlorine

Co Cobalt

Cr Chromium

Cu Copper

F Fluorine

Fe Iron

Ge Germanium

H Hydrogen

He Helium

Hg Mercury

I Iodine

K Potassium

La Lanthanum

Li Lithium

Mg Magnesium

Mn Manganese

Mo Molybdenum

N Nitrogen

Na Sodium

Nd Neodymium

Ni Nickel

O Oxygen

P Phosphorus

Pb Lead

Pd Palladium

Pm Promethium

Pt Platinum

Te Tellurium

Rb Rubidium

Rn Radon

S Sulfur

Sb Antimony

Se Selenium

Si Silicon

Sm Samarium

Sr Strontium

U Uranium

W Wolfirarm or tungsten

Zn Zinc

Measures

Bi Billion (10⁹)

cm Centimeter

Ga Giga (10⁹) or billion age (years)

km Kilometer

m Meter

Ma Million (10⁶) age (years)

Mi Miles

Mt Million tonnes

T/t Tonnes

Chapter 1

Minerals and rocks

Abstract

Earth’s crust and underlying rigid mantle make the lithosphere, consisting of a variety of minerals and rocks including oil and gas. More than 80% of all raw materials that are used in various sectors of economy, society, and environment are of mineral origin. Their uses are in major construction projects, such as roads, railway tracks, airports, tunnels, canals, dam sites, high rise buildings, industrial settlements, agriculture, jewelry, medicine, and many more. The demand for minerals and rocks is greater every day. About 3800 known minerals exist on Earth, 40 minerals (nonmetallic, 15 and metallic, 25) described in detail covering chemical and physical parameters, major elemental content, uses, and largest global producing countries, supported by individual mineral images. Minerals can be classified by commercial applications. A short definition of ore, gangue mineral, and tailings are described. Approximately 80 common minerals tabulated with chemical, physical, and optical properties along with the nature of occurrences and major uses. A short description of common igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks tabulated highlighting the significant physical description, mineral compassion, and major uses.

Keywords

Minerals; metallic; nonmetallic; classification; description; metal contain; global distribution; uses; rocks

Chapter Outline

Outline

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Importance of minerals, rocks, and soils to society 1

1.3 Minerals 6

1.3.1 Nonmetallic minerals 7

1.3.2 Metallic minerals 27

1.4 Rocks 44

1.5 Mineral resources 50

References 51

Minerals are wasting asset – once removed – lost forever.

Author

1.1 Introduction

Since time immemorial the minerals, rocks and soil had been the major attraction for the growth, development, and survival of every living entity including human, animals, birds, plants, and trees. That indeed forced us to know more about the minerals (mineralogy) and the rocks and soils (petrology).

The crust of the mother Earth and the underlying relatively rigid mantle make up the lithosphere. The crust is composed of a great variety of minerals and rocks. More than 80% of all raw materials that are used in various sectors of economy, society, and the environment are of mineral origin. The demand for minerals is greater every day. In most countries, the values of raw materials used for the metal industry and building materials exceed the value of the funds allocated for oil and gas, although, we hear more about oil and gas.

The deposits of raw materials (minerals, rocks, and soils) have to be found, investigated, explored, and estimated for their potential of actual reserves/resources and quality/grade. The geological studies of rock formations are extremely significant consequences for major construction projects (roads, railway tracks, airports, tunnels, canals, dam sites, high-rise buildings, industrial and inhabited settlements, and many more areas). Not a single project can be constructed without adequate geological research and documentation on the types of rock and their mineralogical, petrological, engineering, hydrogeological, and geotechnical characteristics.

1.2 Importance of minerals, rocks, and soils to society

The Stone Age marks a period of prehistory in which humans used primitive stone tools for hunting animals and fish for food. The first stone tools have been dated to roughly 2.6 million years ago. The end of Stone Age was set at the first use of the metal bronze (an alloy of copper with ~12% tin and other metals) around 3300 BC (Before Christ). The inhabitants in the Near East began working with metal and making tools and weapons on the onset of the Bronze Age. The cavemen noticed the lightening in the sky and dry trees caught fire if lightning struck it. The curiosity of cavemen made then learn to light a fire by striking stones. The first stone tools were made by striking stones and used by early transitional humans and Australopithecus (genus’ of hominins) in East Africa about 2.5 million years ago. The importance of minerals and rocks in the development of society was realized as early as the Stone Age.

All the engineering and technical works, such as roads (Fig. 1.1), tunnels (Fig. 1.2), bridges (Fig. 1.3), dams (Fig. 1.4), buildings, and numerous monuments (Figs. 1.5 and 1.6) of man’s spiritual culture through long-lasting temples, (Fig. 1.7), obelisks (Fig. 1.8), and inscriptions on walls (Fig. 1.9) are built of rock, minerals, metals, or materials that are either part of the rock or obtained from the rocks. In-depth knowledge of mineralogy, petrology, texture, structure, in situ rock quality, and the effect of weathering is essential for planning, execution, and optimum uses of natural mineral/rock resources.

Figure 1.1 The Sela Pass, located at Arunachal Pradesh, India, is a high altitude (13,700 ft) mountain pass connecting Guwahati (340 km)/Tezpur (155 km)/Bomdila (42 km) in south, and Tawang (78 km) in north by main access road NH 229. The Pass experiences heavy snow in winter and landslides during rains posing geological and engineering problem. The road is maintained by Indian Border Security Force.

Figure 1.2 Long tunnel in Europe keeps away from extended high altitude road travel distance. In situ rock conditions and structures, excessive rains, and snow are the main hazards of concern.

Figure 1.3 Tower/London Bridge is a combination of cable suspension and moveable type over river Thames build between 1886 and 1894 using concrete and steel connects. The bridge is 244 m in length, connects main city and Southwark, and enjoy heritage status. Rock type and structures on either side of the banks, soil condition on the river bed, water flow, and nature silting are important in designing the Tower Bridge.

Figure 1.4 Maithon Dam, 48 km from Dhanbad coal belt town, India, is constructed on Barakar River. The dam is 4789 m long, 50 m high, and over 65 sq km water reservoir. It was designed based on in situ rock competency and related structural features, for flood control and generate 60,000 kW hydroelectric power since 1957.

Figure 1.5 The Great Pyramid of Giza (Cheops) is the oldest (2560 BC), the tallest (146.5 m), and the largest monument made by the Egyptian Pharaoh (Khufu/King) as a tomb. This Pyramid consists of 2.3 million limestone blocks from nearby quarry each varies between 2.5 and 6 t making a total weight of 7.3 Mt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the ancient World and the only one to remain largely intact.

Figure 1.6 Entries into the Pyramid where the king/queen/high priest was buried along with treasures. There are several false entry doors to misguide the miscreants. Milk, wine, beer, and small piece of bread offered during burial are still preserved in scientific laboratories in Cairo.

Figure 1.7 Abu Simbel temples are twin massive rock structures on the western bank of Lake Nasser in Nubia, southern Egypt. The temples are originally carved out of in situ limestone mountainside during the reign of Pharaoh Ramesses II in the 13th Century BC, as a lasting monument to himself and queen Nefertari positioned few meters in the right. The complex was relocated in its entirety in 1968, on an artificial hill high above the Aswan High Dam reservoir.

Figure 1.8 Monolithic granite Obelisks of 23 m high stood at the entrance to the Luxor temple complex, Egypt, since 1300 BC. The obelisk symbolized the Sun God Ra, and bear inscription that refer the king’s seizure of goods.

Figure 1.9 Inscriptions on limestone walls of ancient temples at Luxor, Egypt, portray the offerings of flower, food, drinks, and wealth to the Crowned God/King sitting at the center.

The rocks depict the direct evidences and speak the events that happened in the geologic past of Earth (both volcanic and tectonic activities, and interactions between the land and sea).

Fossils in Latin (fossus=being dug up) are the well-preserved remains of animals, plants, and other organisms from the past. People have always noticed and collected fossils, pieces of rock, and minerals with the remains of biologic organisms. The fossils and their occurrence within the sequence of Earth’s rock strata is referred to as the fossil record.

The records of fossils are one of the early sources of data relevant to the study to reliably determine the boundaries between sea and land, and the existence of lakes and rivers in different periods of geological history. These are the rock records that geologists need to learn to read the geological events dated during billions/millions of years earlier. According to these indicators, it is clear that the boundaries of land and sea in the past have frequently changed. Many areas that are land now were submerged marine areas in the past and vice versa.

The fossils in sedimentary rocks have a great significance presenting the development documents for the reconstruction of the Earth and life on it. These evidence primarily assist for the age determination of rocks and the time span in which each fossil communities grow and develop, and thus the entire sequence of sedimentation.

The rocks in the Earth’s crust are mostly disturbed because of tectonic movements that are not present at the place and in their relations as they were at its origin. The study of their age, location, time of origin, and initial relations will speak the tectonic movements to reconstruct the process of formation of the mountain chains.

The soil is a vital part of the environment. It is equally important that provides all agricultural product as food supply chain, forest to clean the environment, house building in earthquake-prone area and furniture making, and sources of underground/surface water for all purposes. Soil sustains life. Soil hosts many economic deposits of gold, nickel, aluminum, and platinum.

The stones (broken fractions of a rock) serve the man from the Stone Age, ranges between 3300 BC and 2.6 million years before, as the foundation of his existence and creation. The prehistoric genus Homo (Great Apes) and their predecessor widely used stones tools, implements, artifacts with sharp ages, pointed and percussion surfaces for haunting food, and learned to control fire. Ample evidences of their life system had been unearthed along the Awas River in Ethiopia following the East African Rift System. Millennium shift of the culture, material goods, and spiritual needs of a variety of people remained recorded in stone as a memorial to the past for the future. The civilization advanced with the advent of metalworking passing through copper age (3500–2300 BC), Bronze age (~3000 BC), and Iron age (Vedic Civilization, 2000–500 BC). Modern society uses 100 s of minerals, metals, and alloys in day to day life and impossible to live without it.

1.3 Minerals

Mineral is a homogeneous inorganic substance that occurs naturally, usually in crystalline form with a definite chemical composition. It is generally in solid form, the exceptions being mercury, natural water, and fossil fuel. The common rock-forming minerals (RFM) are quartz (SiO2), orthoclase feldspar (KAlSi3O8), plagioclase feldspar (CaNaAlSi3O8), albite (NaAlSi3O8), mica group, such as muscovite (H2KAL3 (SiO4)3) and biotite (H2K(MgFe)3Al (SiO4)3). The common ore-forming minerals are hematite (Fe2O3), cassiterite (SnO2), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), sphalerite (ZnS), galena (PbS), baryte (BaSO4 2H2O), gypsum (CaSO4), and apatite (Ca5(PO4)3 (F,Cl,OH)), etc. (Haldar, 2007, 2018; Haldar and Tišljar, 2014).

There are approximately 3800 known minerals, including oil and gas, existed on Earth, 40 minerals (nonmetallic, 15 and metallic, 25) are described in detail covering chemical and physical properties, major elemental content, uses, and largest producing countries in the world. The minerals can be classified by commercial applications (Table 1.1). A short definition of Ore, Gangue mineral, and Tailings is given in Box 1.1. In addition ~80 minerals are tabulated with chemical, physical, and optical properties along with the nature of occurrences and major uses (Table 1.2).

Table 1.1

Box 1.1

Definition

Ore: The Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, United Kingdom, defines Ore as a solid naturally occurring mineral aggregate of economic interest from which one or more valuable constituents may be recovered by treatment. Therefore ore and orebody include metallic deposits, noble metals, industrial minerals, rocks, bulk or aggregate materials, gravel, sand, gemstones, natural water, polymetallic nodules, and mineral fuel from land and ocean bed. All ores are minerals or its aggregates, but the reverse is not true.

Gangue minerals: The ore deposits are rarely comprised of 100% ore-bearing minerals and usually associated with RFM during mineralization process. These associated minerals or rocks having no significant or least commercial value are called gangue minerals. The common gangue minerals are quartz (SiO2), calcite (CaCO3), clay minerals (All types), mica (All types), pyrite (FeS2), pyrrhotite (Fen S(n+1), etc.

Tailing: The rejects of process plant consisting of gangue minerals and less than 10% ore minerals are called tailing, which are composed of gangue minerals. The tailings are used as the support system by back-filling of the void space in underground mines. Alternatively, it is deposited in a tailing pond and is treated as waste. The high-value metals can be recovered by leaching from tailing in the future. The tailing of Kolar gold mine, India, historically stored at tailing dam, is being considered to recover gold by leaching without any mining and milling costs.

Table 1.2

aMohs Hardness Scale.

Source: Pirsson, L.V., 1947, Rocks and Rock Minerals, John Wile & Sons, Inc., p. 349; Dana, E.S., 1951, A Text Book on Mineralogy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, p. 851, and internet.

The minerals can broadly be classified into two major categories, namely, nonmetallic and metallic.

1.3.1 Nonmetallic minerals

The nonmetallic minerals do not contain any metal in its chemical composition. These minerals generally have low specific gravity and hardness ranging entire Mohs scale of hardness Talc as 1 and diamond as 10. Nonmetallic minerals constitute the common rocks. The examples of common nonmetallic minerals are alabaster (CaCO3 or CaSO4.2H2O), amethyst (SiO2), andalusite (Al2SiO5), calcite (CaCO3), diamond (C), graphite (C), fluorite or fluorspar (CaF2), orthoclase feldspar or K-feldspar {KAlSi3O8), plagioclase feldspar (NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8), garnet (Ca3Al2(SiO4)3), gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O), halite or rock salt (NaCl), mica (aluminosilicate of K/Na, Fe/Mg, and rarely Li or Cr), lepidolite {K(Li, Al, Rb)2(Al, Si)4O10(F, OH)2}, quartz (SiO2), sulfur (S), topaz (Al2SiO4(F, OH)2), and tourmaline (NaMg3(Al,Mg)6B3Si6O27(OH)).

1.3.1.1 Alabaster

Alabaster is applied to two distinct minerals with prefix to Calcite (CaCO3) (Fig. 1.10), and Gypsum (CaSO4) representing the individual properties of each. The mineral or rock is soft, translucent, and often used for awesome carving, and processed for plater powder. The purest alabaster is snow-white color with fine uniform grain. It often associates with an oxide of iron that changes the appearance to brilliant and shining yellow-red-brown clouding and veining in the stone. The coarser varieties of gypsum alabaster are converted by calcination into plaster of Paris. The beauty of Alabaster has been prized for thousands of years. The main sources of transparent to semitransparent Alabaster are Egypt, Italy, and Aragon (Northern Spain). The most famous so-called alabaster artifacts are originated from ancient Egypt.

Figure 1.10 Alabaster (calcite) is soft to medium-hard fine-grained carbonate (CaCO3) mineral of Ancient Egyptians, primarily used as decorative and ornamental artifacts such as vases, statue.

1.3.1.2 Amethyst

Amethyst (SiO2) is the brilliant violet/purple color variety of quartz. In nature amethyst crystals are mainly formed in the inner surface of an amethyst geode (small cavity filled with crystals, found on the surface of the Earth). Amethyst can also be found on the vugs (Fig. 1.11), holes in rock by dissolving or eroding on the surface of rock, and form deep cavities. Amethyst is mainly used as a gemstone due to brilliance in color and translucent in transparency. Amethyst crystal therapies are known for healing physical ailments of the nervous system and the curing of nightmares, and insomnia.

Figure 1.11 Twined crystalline overgrowth of Amethyst forms as geode or vug from the cavities in fissures and veins out of gas bubbles in basaltic lava. The distinct features of amethyst are extreme hardness and colorless at the inside surface to brilliantly sparkling purple or violet toward the hollow chamber that makes it suitable for jewelry.

The major sources of Amethyst are from Brazil as geodes within volcanic rocks, Uruguay, South Korea, Russia, United States, and South India. Zambia is one of the largest global amethyst producers of 1000 tonnes annually.

1.3.1.3 Andalusite

Andalusite is an aluminum silicate (Al2SiO5) mineral (Fig. 1.12) formed under regional metamorphism or at contact metamorphic zone around intrusive igneous rocks. Andalusite is a rock-forming industrial mineral and belongs to andalusite, kyanite, and sillimanite group, important for the geothermometry and geobarometry of metamorphic rocks. Andalusite occurs in argillaceous and micaceous slates, schists, and gneisses, and as crystals resulting from the contact metamorphism of intrusive rocks. The primary applications are refractory bricks/monolithic blocks in the iron and steel industry, porcelain spark plugs, and transparent variety as gemstone and jewelry.

Figure 1.12 Andalusite is an aluminum silicate mineral formed under regional metamorphism or at contact metamorphic zone around intrusive igneous rocks, primary applications are as refractory bricks/monolithic blocks in iron and steel industry, porcelain spark, plugs, and transparent variety as gemstone and jewelry.

The largest Andalusite producing countries include South Africa, France. India is the largest producer of Sillimanite from Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Rajasthan, and West Bengal.

1.3.1.4 Calcite

Calcite is a carbonate mineral CaCO3 (Fig. 1.13), and the most stable polymorph of calcium carbonate (calcite, aragonite, and vaterite). The color is milky white due to transparency with a yellow tint. The luster is vitreous with a white streak. The specific gravity of the mineral is 2.71 g/cm³. The calcite in purest form contains 56.03% CaO and 43.97% CO2.

Figure 1.13 Calcite is a carbonate mineral. It is colorless and white with occasional gray, yellow, and green shades. It is the main constituent of limestone, marble, and shells of marine species.

The major uses and applications are dimension stones, mortar, blocks of pyramids, monuments, statuary, calcite alabaster for sculpture and artifacts, flooring,