The Colours of Desire on the Canvas of Restraint: The Jaina Way

By Sudhamahi Regunathan

A lucid account of the history of Jainism
The early Jainas were clever communicators. From sensuous poetry to voluptuous sculptures, tales that were both explicit and explorative, and even games, they employed a range of innovative techniques to explain and transmit their teachings. Sudhamahi Regunathan, a former vice-chancellor of the Jain Vishva Bharati University, takes a leaf out of their book as she writes this introduction to Jainism. Using an array of stories and myths, she starts with a historical account of the first twenty-three Tirthankaras as narrated in the Jaina texts and goes on to delve into the philosophy of the religion. The discussions on the tenets that form the bedrock of Jainism are illuminating -- be it anekanta, the belief in the multi-dimensionality of truth; santhara, the controversial practice of voluntarily embracing death; or the interplay between desire and restraint, which is at the heart of Jainism's simple way of life. Regunathan also highlights the contribution of the Jainas to building a common Indian ethos, and throws light on Jainism's many distinctions. It is a little known fact, for instance, that the first nun was initiated into the Jaina order long before the start of the Christian era. Scholarly yet accessible, The Colours of Desire on the Canvas of Restraint hopes to upturn the popular notion that Jainism is a 'dry' religion as it takes its readers into an austere yet colourful world.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Element
• Release date: Nov 1, 2015
• ISBN: 9789351770572

Sudhamahi Regunathan

Sudhamahi Regunathan is a former vice chancellor of the Jain Vishva Bharati University in Ladnun, Rajasthan. An author and translator, her books include Rishabhayan: The Story of the First King (2014), The Colours of Desire on the Canvas of Restraint (2015) and From One Birth to Another: Stories from Jaina Literature (2019).

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The Colours of Desire on the Canvas of Restraint

The Jaina Way

SUDHAMAHI REGUNATHAN

Savvasim jiviyam piyam

To each and every being, life is dear

CONTENTS

Introduction

SAMYAK DARSHAN: RIGHT PERSPECTIVE

1. Marudeva: An Ascetic’s Mother

2. Ride to Purimtal: A Dream Come True

3. Rishabha: What a Wilting Flower Said

4. The Sons: Each to His Unbounded Empire

5. Bharat and Bahubali: A Measure of Might

6. Mallinatha: A Woman Tirthankara?

7. Rajimati: Desire Restrained

8. Parsvanatha: Jaina History Begins

9. Around Mahavira: Many Voices, Many Beliefs

10. Vardhamana: The Search

11. When Vardhamana Became Mahavira: Awakening Compassion

12. Chandanbala: Tonsured Head, Tear-filled Eye 83 and a Basket Full of Pulses

13. Jina: The Conquest

14. Goyama: A Little Bit of Attachment

15. Meghakumar: A Little Bit of Patience

16. Three Musts to Get on to Mokshamarg

SAMYAK GYAN: RIGHT KNOWLEDGE

17. Anekanta

18. Multiplication and Division of the Fold

19. Text and Subtext

20. The Body and the Soul

21. Pravritti and Nivritti, Mahavratas and Anuvratas

22. To Be and Not to Be

23. Prayer and Practice

SAMYAK CARITRA: RIGHT CONDUCT

24. The First Media Moguls

25. The First Passion: Storytelling

26. The Story of Sahasramalla

27. The Story of Sahasramalla (continued)

28. The First Set of Verses

29. The First Dance Panel and the First Cast Metal Icons

30. Narratives in Line and Colour

31. The First Portrait

32. A Beginning and an End?

Notes

Select Bibliography

Index

Acknowledgements

Photographic Insert

About the Author

Copyright

INTRODUCTION

Mythology is timeless. What often remains after a telling of it is its freshness, charm and relevance, sometimes even a willingness to believe. Simple stories pave the way for the development of complex philosophies and beliefs. In Jainism too, there is a treasure of mythology. This book begins with the tales of the heroes and heroines in Jaina mythology in order to be able to gradually enter the world of the philosophy that forms the warp and weft of its beliefs. If severity and austerity mark the Jaina way of life in some of its aspects, romance and symbolism, not to mention beauty and artistic expressions, make for the rest of its story.

Contrary to common perception, Jainism was not born with Mahavira in the sixth century BC. Mahavira was, in fact, the last or the twenty-fourth Tirthankara (‘Realized One’). If one were to start with the first of his twenty-three predecessors, the story would begin 7,000 years ago or more. Jaina history, however, one finds, begins somewhat hazily with Mahavira’s predecessor Parsvanatha and settles down to facts with Vardhamana Mahavira.

Jainism, Buddhism and Vedanta were born and flourished in the Indian subcontinent with lots of give and take. To get into a discussion about what one gave and what the other took would be futile. It is, however, worth understanding that the borders of intellectual excursions and beliefs were porous and accommodating. Many similar ideas found varied expressions. Some deities served all the religions without getting caught in isms, and some names overlap, as they would in a society of any time. Is the bull found in the Mohenjo-Daro excavations in modern-day Sindh, Pakistan, representative of Rishabha, the first Tirthankara, or of Shiva and his bull Nandi? Such and similar questions only Rishabha or Shiva would be able to answer.

Easier to answer are questions such as what is Jainism. Jainism is a philosophy for the mind—a philosophy towards developing an elegant, responsible and compassionate mind. It does not believe in the existence of a Creator, much less a divine agony aunt. It believes that the universe is without beginning or end, and our story is one of the play between the animate and the inanimate.

It understands and explains logically that everything inanimate and animate are interred into the earth upon death, and the same material rises up in different combinations to form something else or some other body. That which lives on, making for continuity, is the soul. The purpose of life, then, is to purify the soul. There are a fixed number of souls in this world, and they move from births which afford a better life to births in hell, depending on their purity. Jaina cosmology divides space into four sections: hell, middle world, heaven and the uppermost world, where the realized souls reside.

Time, in Jaina conception, is a qualitative cycle: from the excellent, it deteriorates into the terrible and then starts building its quality again. This points towards the existence of three concomitant aspects: origination, destruction and permanence. That which originates is also being destroyed even while it is originating, and yet there are some aspects of it that remain its defining features. This principle is called anekanta.

Anekanta is an idea which says if origination and destruction, which make for impermanence, can coexist with permanence, then it means opposites can coexist. Do sun and shade not coexist? It also means that what one thinks is true and what one thinks is untrue, both exist. Nothing is totally untrue; it may be true under certain conditions and situations. Similarly, nothing is absolutely true; it may not hold water under some conditions or at a certain time. Everything is part of a multidimensional truth; truth itself is relative.

When Acharya Mahapragya, the tenth spiritual head of the Jaina Swetambara Terapanth community, said that we should try and understand all religions and learn from them ‘… because we may then be able to get closer to the truth …’ he was echoing the social aspect of anekanta, a thought which had been voiced by Mahavira himself.

The following is a conversation Mahavira had with his disciple, Gautama:

Gautama: Sire, what is shashvat dharma? (‘Shashvat’ means that which is classic, always holds, and is eternal.)

Mahavira: Non-violence is shashvat dharma.

Gautama: Sire, some thinkers assert that their faith alone, and no other, represents dharma. Is that true?

Mahavira: Gautama, beware of those who say, ‘Seek refuge in my teachings if you desire deliverance.’ Such an attitude is indicative of religious dogmatism. Such people can at best teach fanaticism, not religion.

In another context, Mahavira is quoted as having said:

Sayam sayam pasamsamta, garahanta param vayam

Je u tatth viyussanti, samsaaram teviyussiya

Those who praise their own faith, disparage their opponents’, and possess malice against them will remain confined to the cycle of birth and death.

Critics say anekanta is a mark of indecision. To me, it does not appear to be indecision but the admission of other possibilities, hitherto unexamined. And it is this allowance for other possibilities that makes the religion more tolerant and catholic in its approach, and therefore enables it to foster ahimsa, its core belief. In today’s times, this is the magic concept which, if understood, can keep people together with no threat to their independent identities.

Ahimsa means non-violence. The Jainas have examined the idea so intricately that they have detailed a whole lifestyle based on ahimsa. To live such a life, one of the important prerequisites is anekanta, which advocates against any assertion of absolute truth. A related and charming idea explains that this is possible only when you practise aparigraha, or non-possession. It has sometimes been interpreted as non-possessiveness too, but the message is not to take exclusive ownership of anything—be it material property, an idea or a belief.

The issue rises far above considerations of how many material possessions one should have. But how far above? To understand that, the Jainas highlighted one more truth: Every being wants to live. To live and let live is the essence. The overarching principle is ‘Aya tule payasu,’ which means, ‘Measure every soul as equivalent to yours.’ That which stands in your way of doing so is your own desire, on which feeds greed.

This understanding calls for restraint in human behaviour for two reasons. At the gross level, it is necessary to observe restraint so as to be able to live amicably with others. At the individual level, Jaina thought believes all actions invite karmic particles which get attached to the soul, thus rendering it impure. If one wants to keep it pure, one should keep desire away. To what extent is this possible? To the extent that one can restrain oneself. If this world is described as a play between the animate and the inanimate, life—the form that this play takes—and its progression is a play between restraint and desire. The karmic matter that attaches itself to the soul lends its aura a colour depending on its degree of purity. The more the restraint, the lighter, the more brilliant and the more auspicious the colour.

My feeling is that this is the central idea not just in Jaina thought but also in the reason for Mahavira’s life of penance and later realization. Mahavira seems to emerge as a man of elegance. He was severe on himself and advocated severity on anyone who sought truth. Of course, he suggested that each one find truth for himself or herself instead of taking his word for it. If one wishes to do so, one has hard work ahead, as one would imagine any tall assignment to entail. If, however, one wishes to learn from him, one idea stands out—that of inclusiveness.

Mahavira traversed diverse terrains, lived in times when there was great diversity of thoughts and the courage to express them. Under these circumstances, I do not subscribe to the popular notion that Jainism was born as a retort to Brahminism and that it is severe and dry. There is an element of truth in these contentions, but it is difficult to imagine that a man with such tolerance for other ways of thought and lifestyles would promote a religion against any other community even if the Brahmins were oppressive.

Mahavira wanted to embellish the character of people, for he asked what use was learning if it did not translate into good conduct. His teachings were more a comment on the deteriorating values of the time and the need to link ethical conduct to learning, for that should be the end aim of any human being’s life. So, the three important prerequisites for stepping on the path to moksha are right perspective, right knowledge and right conduct. The ultimate goal, thus, is right conduct.

And right conduct, as we have seen, is built on the idea of restraint: to keep within one’s limits so as to allow others to live in the manner they wish. Restraint is the product of a sensitive mind. All art forms are defined by restraint. When all is said or expressed, it ceases to be art or poetry. It is a moment of silence that defines the music, stillness that showcases the dance, emptiness that highlights the colours. When a river tumbles down mountains, it is her restraining banks that define her. Jaina religion too, defined by renunciation where riches abound, is modelled to make living an art. And so the Jainas have in their tradition some of the finest poetry and stories, not to mention temple carvings.

The advocacy of restraint is logically derived. The first purpose of restraint is ahimsa, which involves respecting other organisms. Jainism has made some singular contributions to human thought by highlighting what we share with all other living beings: it has categorized organisms on the basis of their senses—from organisms with a single sense to those with five. This makes them sensitive to the living beings in water, in air and even in the sputum that is coughed out, thus treading with care and teaching us the best lesson possible in taking care of the environment.

The Jainas take full responsibility for their actions. They cannot say they did not know better and so committed an act out of ignorance; the action will still attract karmic particles and make their soul impure. It is important to always be alert. This is, truly enough, more severe than the tenets of many other religions.

Mahavira was a pioneer in offering to women the possibility of seeking the spiritual path, which had been hitherto reserved for men. The first-ever nun was made by this tradition; this happened in the sixth century BC, if not earlier. Even prior to Mahavira, one sect of Jainas believes, one of the Tirthankaras was a woman. The first Tirthankara too taught his daughters mathematics and the written script.

As Mahavira was trying to influence conduct, his followers found it necessary to be innovative in communication so as to get across their ideas with minimum resistance. They understood the essence of effective communication: begin with the known and attack the weak spot to capture the audience. They thus took existing stories and adapted them to convey the message of ahimsa, anekanta and aparigraha. Their teachings advocated detachment from worldly pleasures—an idea that would not immediately appeal to any human being. So they elaborated on all that was taboo in such detail that they got the listener’s attention and then added their statutory warning that pleasures of the senses lead only to sorrow.

Ancient India’s earliest amorous poetry was in Prakrit, compiled by a Jaina poet king as early as the beginning of the Christian era. The first-ever dance panel in architectural evidences is also from a Jaina construction. Stories of great cunning and connivance are found in the Jaina repertoire (much against the popular notion of Jainism being severe and dry). This had two results. Firstly, it contributed greatly to building a common Indian ethos, with stories and poems from one region being transmitted to another with local variations. Secondly, it enriched the local languages. Prakrit is found to be related or to have loaned words to many Indian languages.

Concern for the environment, gender equity, need for ethics and values and, above all, the need to practise restraint in speech and action are some of the significant contributions of Jainism to Indian culture and our life today. What could be more relevant than these?

It would not be right to say that Jainism has not been written about—or in much detail. It has been, by scholars of great erudition and by monks who have dedicated their lives to penance and spiritual progress. The former have often written in English, German and French, while the latter have written not just in Sanskrit and Prakrit but in many regional languages such as Tamil, Kannada, Marathi, Telugu, Gujarati and so on. And yet, for all the surfeit of material, little is known about Jainism on an average, and much less about the beauty that lies in its thought process. It is my personal discovery of Jainism that I have tried to articulate in this book.

This book is divided into three sections, along the lines of the three pillars of Jaina thought, as it were: right perspective, right knowledge and right conduct.

How does one gain the right perspective and what is the right perspective anyway? The right perspective is built on the principle of purifying the soul. The first one to realize this truth was Rishabha. He was the first king that human society made. In turn, he gave people the ability to read and write, skills for many vocations and even the institution of marriage (and polygamy). Rishabha was also the first to become an ascetic, renouncing the home (Chapters 1 to 5) and attaining kaivalya, or enlightenment.

His mother dreamt of fourteen objects, and that became the standard dream that mothers of future Tirthankaras would have. At the level of rituals, these objects became subjects of veneration. At the intellectual level, this marked the birth of symbolism, something used dexterously in poetry by the Jainas in later years.

Rishabha was followed by many other Tirthankaras, and not all of their stories have been dealt with in detail. I have focused only on those whose lives have a bearing on our thinking and life today. There was a Tirthankara called Mallinatha. This story is told for two purposes. One, some sects believe she was a woman. But (and this says something about Indian society around the beginning of the millennium when the first versions of her story would have been written) her story is always told with the twin story of her previous birth, in which she was a king called Mahabala. Because he, Mahabala, was remiss in his penance, he was born a woman. He had achieved perfection in terms of everything else, but this little imperfection caused him to be relegated to a lower birth, that of a woman. Because his penance was so strong, though, he/she attained enlightenment. Is the Jaina tradition half-hearted in letting a woman be a Tirthankara (Chapter 6)?

That a woman is held in high and equal esteem is borne out by the next Tirthankara’s story. It was Neminatha who decided to renounce just a few minutes before he was to get married. His bride-to-be held herself with dignity and even gave a sermon to Neminatha’s brother that brought him to the path of rectitude (Chapter 7). Another example to prove the point can be found in the story of Chandanbala, from whom Mahavira took his first morsel after twelve years of fasting (Chapter 12). But Chandanbala was in Mahavira’s time. Parsvanatha, a greatly popular Tirthankara, preceded Mahavira (Chapter 8). In his time, it is said, there were three times as many nuns as monks.

At the time of Mahavira, there seem to have been many schools of thought and effervescent discussion on religions and their philosophies. All of them died except for Buddhism and Jainism. Two stories of Meghakumar and Gautama are interesting because they show us a very human side of the religion. Meghakumar was initiated into the Jaina Sangha (the community of monks and nuns was called sangha) by Mahavira. After a night of discomfort, the prince who had renounced felt he wasn’t meant for the life of a monk. He decided to go back to his palace when Mahavira, understanding his thoughts, showed him his previous birth. Meruprabh the elephant was reborn as Meghakumar because of his high level of compassion. Meghakumar found himself inspired once again as he saw the large picture held out to him by Mahavira. The other story is about Gautama, Mahavira’s foremost disciple. Gautama was disheartened because everyone else attained enlightenment except for him. Why, he wondered. Mahavira tells him. In a sense, these stories pave the way to better understand the basic principles that make for the right perspective (Chapters 13 to 16).

The second section is about right knowledge. The Jainas got divided rather early on in their history into two main sects and many smaller ones. The Digambaras, or the sky-clad ones, and the Swetambaras, those clad in white, are the two main sects. Their texts also thus diverged. The fundamentals, however, remained the same and the purification of soul their ultimate aim. This section tries to explain Jaina philosophy in as simple terms as possible, and yet philosophy by definition is not simple. So, even if a glimpse into the beliefs of Jainism is gleaned from these Chapters, a beginning would have been made (Chapters 17 to 23).

The third section pertains to the right conduct, and the Jainas have a legacy of rich material which they use for education. To delve into it is like taking time off for some fun. The moral draws you back to the core. If at one level this makes for very interesting reading, at another it highlights the immense contribution of the Jainas to building a common Indian ethos.

For the first time the common man became the hero, not kings and gods alone. For the first time again, the stories dealt with the passions and emotions every human being was facing. These two aspects made the Jaina expressions very popular, and many of the morals they preached were imbibed by society, either directly or indirectly. The boost given to vegetarianism could be identified as one such.

The charming motif in the stories, poetry and literature, in general, is the travelling tradesman. Along with the gems and gold that he carried from place to place in caravans, he also carried stories, the love sighs of his beloved and small cast metal icons that symbolized his faith. He is also the villain of the story, for he got so involved in moneymaking that the finesse the religion had acquired was lost in scattered texts that lacked interpretation.

This book, I hope, will serve as an introduction to the Jaina way of thought.

SAMYAK DARSHAN: RIGHT PERSPECTIVE

The goddess of wealth blessed a man with lots of gold coins. ‘Be careful,’ she warned, before pouring the coins into his worn-out towel. ‘The faith you repose in your towel’s strength is vital. If the coins should fall to the ground, they will turn into mud.’ Was his towel strong enough?

The first step of reposing faith is knowing what it is you are reposing faith in. What does it stand for? What does it hold for you? That is why the Jainas see Samyak Darshan as the first step in their spiritual journey.

Samyak means right, appropriate. Darshan has been translated as faith or perspective. It also means philosophy. It means the larger picture that you see before you. What is the larger picture? It shows you a soul that has passed through many births. In that process it leads you through different forms of life and you wonder what was the single element that was responsible for deciding what kind of life your next one will be and why the past one was as it was. The answer is karma. Your actions draw karmic particles towards you as a magnet would iron filings.

Mohaniya karma are actions that tempt. They have the lure of excitement and pleasure. Anantanubandhi kashayas are again, as the name indicates, bondages that tie these attractions into a net of attachments. The resultants are anger, greed, ego, deceit and so on. With these emotions, we lose our objectivity. Therefore the right perspective is required to emerge out of this dark cocoon of illusion.

On gaining the right perspective, one will know the need to pacify one’s emotions, get the desire for moksha, develop a healthy disinterest in worldly activities, have selfless compassion and total faith in the words of the Jina. The following sixteen chapters attempt to lay the foundation for understanding Jaina thought. Who were the preachers of Jainism and what was their life story? Do the fundamental principles of Jainism shine through them as a prism would reflect the composition of light?

1

MARUDEVA: AN ASCETIC’S MOTHER

Marudeva looked out of the window of her palatial residence. She parted the leaves and branches of the nearby tree, and her eyes scanned the landscape, luscious and green in the central part of the island of Jambudvipa. Marudeva was waiting. Her face disclosed it. She was waiting restlessly, and justifiably so, for, if anything exciting could happen, it could happen only in Madhyaloka, where she lived.

A cool draught of wind blew across her face as she withdrew and sat down, still alert as she waited. Will he call or cry out? Will she hear his voice?

As the sun showcases the parade of clouds, as the shell is ornamented by the pearl, as the cave is made more interesting with the presence of a lion within, Marudeva had acquired distinction as Rishabha’s mother. Full-breasted, dark-complexioned, glowing with a golden hue, having eyes that seemed to drink in the world and a face that reflected a sharp intellect,¹ Marudeva, sometimes referred to as Marudevi, epitomized motherhood in its most desirable form. Today, those beautiful eyes wore a thin veil of tears.

Marudeva was sitting in wait in the city of Vinita Nagari, the capital of Rishabha’s empire, also known as Ikkhagbhumi or Ayodhya. Maybe, thought Marudeva wryly, one should say what had been Rishabha’s empire. Now it was being ruled by her grandson, Bharat. Marudeva’s wait was because Rishabha was no longer the ruler of Ikkhagbhumi…and where was he?

Was he in Ikkhagbhumi? Ikkhagbhumi or Ayodhya is located on the island of Jambudvipa. And where is Jambudvipa?

Tan madhye meruabhir vrtto yojanasatasahasra-viskhambo jambudvipah

At the centre of these islands and oceans is the round island of Jambu with a diameter of 1,00,000 yojanas and Mount Meru at its navel.²

The universe, in Jaina cosmography, is divided into three regions: the Upper Region, the Middle Region and the Lower Region. The Middle Region, also called Madhyaloka, has at its centre Mount Meru. Around Mount Meru, in concentric circles, there is land and ocean in alternation. The perfectly round island just around Mount Meru is called Jambudvipa and this is where Vinita Nagari is located. Jambudvipa is surrounded by the salty ocean of Lavanoda. Lavanoda is twice as wide as Jambudvipa. It is surrounded by the larger island of Datakikhanda, which in turn is ringed by the ocean Kaloda, or Kala. In such a manner, innumerable islands and oceans alternate each other in Madhyaloka. Some others are Puskaradvipa, the third island. Puskaroda is the ocean that envelops Puskaradvipa. Varunvardvipa, the fourth ring of land, is surrounded by the