Managing Religious Tourism

By Peter Wiltshier, Silvia Aulet Serrallonga, Lucrezia Lopez and 18 more

Managing Religious Tourism provides a global view of the tools and resources used in demand and supply management, in the context of pilgrimage and religious tourism.

With a focus on toolkits and best practices, the book reinforces the quality of service provision and offers a reflection on consumers' perspectives and what drives their purchasing decisions with regards to a variety of destinations. These central themes are complemented by an understanding of management responses to consumer behaviour and mobility, accessibility, individualism and tourism for both sacred and secular purposes. The book also examines the ways in which networks, partnerships and the conceptual stakeholder approach can be employed by religious tourism suppliers working with destination management organisations.

The text promotes sustainable development and a triple bottom line focus, with all chapters supporting policy for framing development.

Key features include:
- Global perspective on tools as well as management approaches and techniques.
- Emphasis on sustainability in connecting sacred and secular consumers.
- Focus on promoting learning and development within this important tourism sector.

• Language: English
• Publisher: CAB International
• Release date: Feb 8, 2019
• ISBN: 9781786393203

Silvia Aulet Serrallonga

- Dr. Sílvia Aulet Serrallonga is a professor at the Faculty of Tourism of the University of Girona teaching in the Degree of Tourism and in the Master of Cultural Tourism. Her PhD dissertation was the first in Spain to address the subject of religious tourism. Her research line is cultural tourism, from its conceptualization to its management. In this field her focus is twofold: pilgrimage and religious tourism and gastronomy tourism. She is member of the Editorial Board of the International Journal on Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage. She is also part of the Unitwin UNESCO Chair "Culture Tourism and Development. She has carried several research projects both in the university and as a consultant. She has recently participated in several national and European projects, notably in SPIRIT-Youth (related to the creation of a spiritual tourism proposal trough Europe for young people). Currently she cooperates with different institutions related to religious tourism, such as Montserrat Monastery, organizing courses and seminars to enhance the performance of tourism stakeholders in sacred spaces.

Book preview

Preface

This book originated from Maureen’s and my journey into beliefs, faith and the somewhat unrelated topic of management. Fourteen years ago I was asked to prepare a report for the diocese of Derby to clarify the relationship between religion and tourism. Or maybe the relationship, were one to exist, between tourism and religion. Tourism officers were tasked within the diocese to explore opportunities to spread mission whilst trying to evaluate whether tourists actually did bring value to the more than 300 Anglican sites of worship in the diocese.

I did find that there were important opportunities to build a meaningful relationship between the Church and its visitors. Many visitors actively sought to understand their own ancestry; to create a story for themselves built around their predecessors’ experiences. This was often cited by church guardians as a meeting point for minds. Guardians could now check whether messages delivered by the Church were being acknowledged; visitors could also check their origins, their ancestry and more importantly, relate these heritage ties to their lives in the 21st century.

This is the point of embarkation with Managing Religious Tourism. Messages can now be made accessible to a much wider audience. Stakeholders can appreciate the wellsprings of belief and now make a contribution to the welfare of religious sites around the world. So, life, belief and tourism management goes on!

Managing the multiple stakeholders at major cathedrals is as much an art as a science. The artistry shown by past Deans at St Patricks in Melbourne and Sacred Heart in Bendigo, Australia, and the present Dean at St Pauls, Melbourne, have provided Maureen with great insights into the skills required in these roles.

We commend this book to religious site guardians everywhere. Their roles in the 21st century as fervent practitioners in mission and belief have complex new workloads that involve obtaining funding, and creating awareness and an exciting presence in a variety of locations. Our guardians enhance and design meaning for countless existing, and many more new, worshippers, visitors and fervent stakeholders in their communities and now in an increasingly global context.

Peter Wiltshier

7 November 2018

1   Introduction

Maureen Griffiths*¹ and Peter Wiltshier²

¹Monash University, Victoria, Australia; ²University of Derby, UK

*Corresponding author: [e-mail]

The management of religious tourism presents many challenges that are unique in both breadth and application. While not attempting to provide answers to all of the obstacles put in the path of managers of religious sites, this book endeavours to put forward a toolkit that will aid positive outcomes, drawing on case studies from multiple countries and regions. A number of the issues encountered in religious tourism are outlined as well as some of the causes that may be attributed to these issues.

Sites of religious significance have existed since biblical times and pilgrimage in the Judeo-Christian context is mentioned in the Old Testament of the Bible. Examples include the story of Elkanah who travels annually to Shiloh to worship and sacrifice (1 Samuel 1:1–28) and the New Testament Pentecost story which takes place as Jews from all over the world come to Jerusalem for Passover (Acts 2: 1–12). Many of these sites still exist and other sites, although not as old, have considerable heritage value. The management of heritage sites presents particular problems one of which relates to the cost of maintenance. This issue will be discussed in detail further on.

Most religious sites are owned by religious organizations and this may cause challenges for their management in that they must balance the needs of their worshippers with those of visitors to the sites. Mosques are at the centre of Islamic tourism and are visited by Muslims, as well as non-Muslims. Muslims may visit mosques while travelling, either as a tourist attraction or as a place of worship. Many mosques have a dual role, functioning both as a place of worship and as a community centre (Kessler, 2015). The role as community centre means that the mosque will be open for functions and festivities that are not strictly religious in nature and may include non-Muslims. Muslim countries such as those in the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) welcome tourism, especially religious tourism, but make the distinction between pilgrimage, the most well-known being the Hajj, and other forms of religious tourism. While non-Muslims are welcome at sites such as mosques they are not welcome at the Hajj (Zamani-Farahani and Eid, 2016). The Hajj is one of the most important forms of pilgrimage today with millions of Muslims travelling to Makkah (Mecca) in Saudi Arabia and is without question the most important Muslim pilgrimage (Jafari and Scott, 2014). It is therefore important to distinguish between Muslim travellers to Muslim sites and non-Muslim visitors to these sites. For example, it is not acceptable for non-Muslims to enter the region of Hejaz where the cities of Mecca and Medina are located (Haq and Jackson, 2009). The situation where there is conflict related to ‘ownership’ of these sites is discussed further on. Other religions have similar problems in relation to conflicting motivations.

One of the conflicts that has been noted is between visitors to religious sites and worshippers. While many visitors see the worshippers as part of the experience, some of the worshippers do not like the feeling of being observed by the visitors (Griffiths, 2011). Worshippers do not want to feel that they are part of a ‘show’ but are happy to share their religious space, and are proud of the architecture and history that attracts visitors to the site. Shackley (2001) has noted that sacredness does not readily cross cultural boundaries. What is viewed as sacred by one group, such as congregants, may be seen only as culturally interesting by a visitor group. Given that some visitors may wish to engage in worship, Church authorities may need to determine when a request to participate in a service should be accepted as an expression of genuine interest and/or intention. Some religious groups such as the Church of Jesus Christ and the Latter Day Saints (broadly referred to as the Mormons) do not allow non-Mormons to observe their religious practices, so as to maintain the sacredness of sites such as the Grand Temple (Bremer, 2000). This issue is discussed in detail in Chapter 6 by Olsen.

Fig. 1.1. Sacred Heart Cathedral, Bendigo, Australia, interior. (From the authors.)

When visitors attend religious sites for non-religious reasons it is important to research their motivations. Olsen (2006) has observed that religious heritage sites are now more likely to be visited for their educational and heritage attributes than for religious purposes. This then leads to how we define visitors to religious sites. Nyaupane et al. (2015) identified four motivations for visitors to a Buddhist site, these being spiritual, recreational, learning and social. They also concluded that social distance explains why people are motivated to visit sites of faiths different to their own. The Camino de Santiago sometimes called ‘The Way’ has evolved from a purely religious pilgrimage to one that has multiple motivations and can be termed as an experiential tourism practice (Lois-González and Santos, 2015). The Camino follows various paths but each conclude at the tomb of St James in the cathedral at Santiago de Compostela. In a recent study it was found that tourists from emerging nations are less likely to engage in pilgrimages to long-haul destinations (Cohen and Cohen, 2015), whereas pilgrims on the Camino (Lois-González and Santos, 2015) or the Hajj may travel significant distances to participate (Haq and Jackson, 2009).

Today, such visitors are highlighting their views of the world from which they sprang; they are engaging in imagining ancestors’ values and worship and they are incorporating the act of visitation as part of their own personal development, explicitly or tacitly (Rinschede, 1990; Jackowski and Smith, 1992; Eck, 2002; Swatos and Tomasi, 2002; Digance, 2003; Oviedo and Jeanrenaud, 2007; Rountree, 2010). Additionally, new-age tourists – whose philosophy can be characterized by alternative approaches to traditional culture, alternative beliefs, mysticism, holism and environmentalism – now inundate pilgrimage and religious sites. Many of these visits are made explicitly to connect to the values of those forebears, from the somewhat culturally austere environments these people now inhabit (Lowenthal, 1975). Therefore, this chapter attests to our continuing interest in belief, or in faith, and special spaces where ancestors assembled for shared rituals. Through the postmodern lens of neoliberalism and marketization, stakeholders now see an important opportunity to value and elevate these sites, to assure future generations of learning and development that cannot and should not be lost. According to a local Anglican development officer, the role of religious sites reflects an expressed need to increase footfall (both spiritual and secular), to allow visitors to curate their own experience on site, to encourage and entice a return visit, to make visitors feel a sense of comfort to assist curation or interpretation where necessary and to use spaces within the site to best advantage for all (A. Rock, 2017, personal communication). From a marketization perspective this also reflects our interest in Tonnies’ conceptual gemeinschaft (1974) which describes a shared identity and a sense of belonging and understanding through sharing an agreed set of community values and beliefs. The social and cultural sense of place and interpretation has a considerable role to play in the business model that emerges.

The 21st century is characterized by rapid change, locally and globally, sophisticated communication methods and highly developed personal and public employment of technology. All stakeholders are, effectively, potential sources of new information to improve what we term the experience economy (Pine and Gilmore, 1999) and to disseminate where suppliers in experiences have done exceptionally well, and where they have made mistakes in responsible management of religious and pilgrimage sites. So, we are all learners and keen students of the management of experiences and, more importantly for this book, we are aspiring to be current leaders and managers of sites that often have serious shortcomings in what we perceive to be successful co-production of experiences. Through a review and evaluation of the outcomes of successful management, a serious attempt to provide a toolkit for the wider audience and players is delivered. Visitors to sites of origin are often curious about these origins and the source of visitors to such sites can be from all points of the compass (Hubert, 1994; Raguin et al., 2002; Shackley, 2002; Digance, 2006; Wiltshier and Clarke, 2009). Sacred and secular visitors now engage with sites of pilgrimage and worship, to create for themselves, as champions of newly discovered heritage, new worldviews of their sentience, and a sense of meaningfulness through such activities as tracing ancestors and genealogy (Swatos and Tomasi, 2002; Oviedo and Jeanrenaud, 2007; Rountree, 2010). Through observation of this wish for meaningfulness, site managers can enhance site protection and management by creating experiences that are both desired by a growing market and which help towards the unenviable requirement of maintaining the fabric of religious sites. Information and collateral for creative and adaptive resources are necessary to meet consumers’ expectations in tandem with hosts’ intentions in delivering managed experiences in religious and pilgrimage sites.

Fig. 1.2. Sacred Heart Cathedral, Bendigo, Australia, interior. (From the authors.)

There is also the issue of different religions laying claim to the same site with Jerusalem being an obvious example (Timothy and Olsen, 2006). Damari and Mansfeld (2016) identify post-postmodern pilgrims as those who wish to interact with local residents as part of their experience, and note that this is not always welcomed by the local residents. This conflict gives rise to a direct correlation between a congregation’s encounter with visitors to their site, and the level of enjoyment experienced by those visitors. Where residents are not happy to interact with visitors, this may negatively affect the visitor experience. Destination marketers have little influence over the attitude of host communities to visitors which may not be conducive to a positive tourism experience (Pike and Page, 2014). Where problems occur, decisions need to made about the practise of tourism at that destination. When the relationship between spiritual or religious tourism operators and other stakeholders breaks down, this can have a major and deleterious effect on tourism within a destination, as was the case in Pakistan (Farooq Muhammad, 2014). Nazareth is another example where there are conflicts between groups relating to a particular space. Christians view Nazareth as important in the story of Christ and home to the Church of the Annunciation yet it is in a Muslim controlled area in a Jewish state (Shmueli et al., 2014). We must consider accommodating opposing views. In a study of the Baha’I World Center in Israel, Kreiner et al. (2015) noted that conflict is not a binary concept but exists in degrees and is different due to differing circumstances. For example, visitors are usually welcome at sites of worship except during services.

Fig. 1.3. Altar at the Benedictine monastic town of New Norcia, Australia. (From the authors.)

Religious sites cannot normally be viewed as discrete entities but as part of the framework of a tourism destination as a whole. The cooperation then between the religious site and the destination tourism bodies is crucial to the success or otherwise of the relationship. Visitors may need food and accommodation and may wish to purchase souvenirs and other services at the destination which will support the local community. Provision of such services has an economic benefit to the local community that would not be available had the religious site not been there (Shackley, 2001). Also religious tourism events can be used to ‘reinforce local identity and revitalize traditions creating a mutual sense of belonging’ (Cerutti and Piva, 2015, p. 63). Such events may centre on religious commemorations at particular sites. Pilgrimage routes present other challenges which will be discussed further on.

Destination marketers have no control over product development at destinations and yet they rely on their stakeholders for funding (Pike and Page, 2014). It is essential that both within and between destinations there is coordination and collaboration in the tourism industry (Mariani et al., 2014). Some regions such as Nong Khai province in Thailand are made up of many religious sites, activities and accommodation providers (Maneenetr and Tran, 2014) making coordination a vital issue for the local tourism industry. Fatima in Portugal is an example of a small town with little to offer the visitor becoming a major site of religious tourism and pilgrimage. The local tourism industry is built around sites such as the basilica and the farmhouse where the children visited by the Virgin Mary lived. However some religious organizations do not wish to be part of the local tourism industry and will not engage with outside bodies (Olsen, 2006).

Pilgrimage sites may lead to development both in the area immediately surrounding the site and also in areas further from the site (Shinde, 2017). Local governments and communities are becoming more involved in religious tourism, including pilgrimage routes, such as those in Poland (Jackowski et al., 2014). Religious events have also led to an increase in tourism, both domestic and international, in some regions of Italy which in turn leads to benefits to the local tourism industry (Cerutti and Piva, 2015). In times of crisis, such as during natural disasters like earthquakes or adverse weather events, or acts of war or terrorism, it is particularly important that there be cooperation between the stakeholders at a destination (Pennington-Gray et al., 2014). Decentralization, where decisions are made locally and not by remote centralized governing bodies, may bring about better outcomes for the preservation of heritage sites as has been shown in Turkey (Bonini Baraldi and Shoup, 2014). Where the decisions are made locally rather than at a national level, it is more likely to be advantageous to the local heritage site. Commercialization of religious sites may aid in their preservation but degrade their religious nature (Barry, 2016) so balance must be found in order to preserve the religious underpinning while also providing economic benefit. A study into destination management by Pearce and Schänzel (2015) concludes that visitors need to be considered in the management of destinations and the over-management of destinations should be avoided.

Pilgrimages often cross borders and this can be both a hindrance and an advantage. As has been previously noted, one of the most famous pilgrimages, the Camino de Santiago concludes at the tomb of St James in Santiago de Compostela in Spain but can have its origins in France or Portugal or indeed further afield. Timothy and Gelbman (2015) found that cross-border experiences can be attractive to some travellers and can be used as a promotional tool, appealing to pilgrims looking for a broader experience. However, borders such as those between Israel and Palestine can be a source of conflict with negative connotations that need to be managed (Gelbman, 2016).

Sites of religious significance are often old and costly to maintain. Shackley (2006) in her study of UK cathedrals noted that they are expensive buildings to maintain and may receive no government support in the way of funding. Some public funding may be available to defray costs and may be appropriate for certain heritage properties (Garrod and Fyall, 2000). However, the levying of fees to enter places of worship is controversial. On the one hand congregations are usually expected to pay for a range of services provided by their church including weddings and funerals, and it is also common for major cathedrals to levy charges to view the building (Price, 1994; Shackley, 2006). However, this option is not available to smaller or less well-known buildings. A common method of encouraging payment is to request donations, but typically this approach generates considerably less than the amount proposed (Price, 1994). Some cathedrals are also able to supplement their income by supplying catering facilities and supporting other retail endeavours (Shackley, 2006). The need for reliable income streams that support the maintenance and development of religious sites has long been recognized in the literature, with local congregations bearing the brunt of costs. However, if new audiences can be found, they can take some of the responsibility for contributing funds (Wiltshier and Griffiths, 2016).

Fig. 1.4. Library at the Benedictine monastic town of New Norcia, Australia. (From the authors.)

While the motivations of visitors have been canvassed in this chapter, we must also consider the motivations of the managers of religious sites in allowing non-worshippers to visit such sites. Mormons initially thought to dispel myths that had grown about them, such as that they were not Christian, by offering guided tours. They now also seek to promote their beliefs to visitors and get their agreement to be contacted by church members at their homes. Accredited guides who are members of the church are the only people who can conduct tours (Olsen, 2006). Some churches offer prayer services at specific times for the benefit of visitors and have staff or volunteers available to answer questions. The literature offers examples of pilgrims who have had spiritual experiences or felt changed in some emotional way (Lois-González and Santos, 2015). The more mercenary aspect of attracting visitors who will make donations must also be considered in the context of the motivations of managers at religious sites. Although this is likely to be a minor consideration in most cases with the costs of opening the site outstripping the donations that may be received (Shackley, 2006).

This book is divided into three main sections. The first deals with the theoretical aspects of managing sacred sites; the second with best practice in the management of sacred sites and the third provides case studies in the area.

Fig. 1.5. The Benedictine monastic town of New Norcia, Australia. (From the authors.)

In Chapter 2, Piva, Cerutti and Raj consider the concept of destination governance through the adoption of local resources in Piedmont at the UNESCO site of Sacri Monti. In Chapter 3, Clarke presents a toolkit for the management of both religious and secular visitors. In Chapter 4, Munro relates the success story of St John’s Co-Cathedral in Valetta, Malta which went from a dilapidated state to a level of development deserving its historic status. In the second section, in Chapter 5, Aulet, Vidal and Altayo consider how capacity management has improved the visitor experience at Monserrat, Spain. In Chapter 6, Olsen details the management practices at Temple Square in Salt Lake City, Utah that have contributed to its success. In Chapter 7, Enongene and Griffin examine the importance of accurate data in the management of religious sites. In Chapter 8, Rotherham presents the complex issues involved in managing pagan sites. In the third section, in Chapter 9, Lopez and Santos Solla use the case of the Camino de Santiago (The Way of St James) to consider development practices at a regional level. In Chapter 10, Morpeth considers the changing role of religious sites in the UK. In Chapter 11, de Jong and Grit present the case of Muktinath Temple in Nepal and the use of user-generated content as a management tool. In Chapter 12, Hu and Huang consider the impact of religious tourism on a host community in Mount E’mei in China. Finally, in Chapter 13, Canal, Holgado and Puyol relate the use of religious tourism to revitalize Manresa in Spain.

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2 Managing the Sacred: A Governance Perspective for Religious Tourism Destinations

Elisa Piva,*¹ Stefania Cerutti¹ and Razaq Raj²

¹University of Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy; ²Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK

*Corresponding author: [e-mail]

Introduction

Over the last few decades, policy makers have developed and formalized the religious tourism sector, to attract travellers to sacred sites and turn those sites into tourism destinations. Previously, travellers visited sacred places and sites out of a desire to come closer to spirituality and seek forgiveness for sins and wrongdoing. That concept has changed and religious tourism has become a commercialized entity that allows travel agencies and policy makers to benefit from religious travellers.

The leading authors in religious tourism accept that it plays a significant role in the development of tourism destinations (Timothy and Olsen, 2006; Raj and Griffin, 2015; Trono, 2015). The notion of travel as simply being for business or recreation has been transformed by the individual traveller, who has been a contributing factor in the dynamic growth of tourism as a business model.

It is now widely accepted that, given the complexity of players and resources involved in the delivery of the religious tourist experience, more sophisticated skills and models are needed to manage sacred sites, cities and destinations. In particular, literature in tourism management identifies a shift towards the concept of governance, considered a useful approach that facilitates an integrated decision making environment and an emerging opportunity for local development (Laws et al., 2011).

This chapter will critically evaluate and discuss a conceptual framework, exploring the issues and themes related to the so-called ‘destination governance’ concept. The aim is to demonstrate the validity of applying these methodological insights to religious tourism destinations, and in doing so, building a possible system of classification related to the diverse management and governance models.

A geographical perspective is chosen as a research strategy which emphasizes the recognition of the relationships among spatial patterns, processes and players that enable a place to be interpreted as a destination.

One of the most important problems in the effective functioning of religious tourism is the proper management of its tourist destinations. The key role can be attributed to the stakeholders who should act systematically to achieve a shared goal of tourism development of a place. It is clear that dealing with the complexity of players and resources that make up a territory is not a simple matter.

The chapter will focus on the main concepts and models of destination governance. Then, it will explore the role of destination governance in the management of religious tourism destinations.

Destination Management and Destination Governance: Current Issues and Models

Tourism is one of the largest industries in the world, supplying in recent years nearly 10% of global Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In many countries, tourism is the main source of income and employment. Travel and tourism employ more than 260 million people worldwide.

Among the issues that affect the tourism industry and the competitiveness of tourist destinations is the quality of