Analysis of Human Behavior

By Jorge Lucendo

The English writer Charles Dickens said that man is an animal of habit many other writers and philosophers have said something similar, and in the same way that we usually act mechanically in our daily lives, our brain works in a similar way. Man is an animal of customs, and those customs together with his habits of life create in him, in a historical way, some alterations, or in the worst of cases, mental illnesses, which we are going to deal with in this book. This book deals in a detailed way the History of Psychology and Psychiatry, and also contains 3 dictionaries, one of Psychology, another of Psychiatry and another of phobias, fears, manias and mental illnesses of all kinds. Once read this book, the reader will have self-diagnosed and he will realize that he is not 100%, nor as mentally healthy as he initially thought .....

• Language: English
• Publisher: Jorge Lucendo
• Release date: May 30, 2019
• ISBN: 9781393812012

Book preview

INDEX

HISTORY OF THE PSYCHOLOGY

PSYCHOLOGY TERMS

HISTORY OF THE PSIQUIATRÍA

The Psiquiatría in the Half Age

The Psiquiatría in the Renaissance

The Psiquiatría in the 17th Century

The Psiquiatría in the 18th and 19th Centuries

TERMS IN PSYCHIATRY

ILLNESSES AND DERIVATIVE AILMENTS OF A PSYCHIC PROBLEM

Phobias, Manias and Fears

DICTIONARY OF THE PHOBIAS

HISTORY OF THE PSYCHOLOGY

The history of the psychology begins the s. IV to.C. With Aristotle (384-322 to.C.). It was born in Estargia, north of Greece. His father was the doctor of Filipo of Macedonia (father of Alexander the Great). From the 18 years until the 38 was in the school of Plato. With the death of Plato in the 347 to.C., it decided to follow his biological and philosophical studies in Lower Asia. In the 342 to.C. RAndgresó to Macedonia like tutor of Alexander the Great, relation that lasted two or three years. To the 335 to.C. Aristotle had returned to Athens, where occupied to study and explain logic, epistemology, physical, biology, ethical political and aesthetic. It was the first philosopher of the science. It created the discipline when analysing some problems that arise in connection with the scientific explanation.

IN THIS PERIOD THOUGHT that existed two worlds: the world of the ideas (a perfect world, irrandto the) and the world of the matter (the real, the imperfect). But Aristotle thought that only existed a world, the real, considered the nature like something holy, in where all the things podían be of two possible forms: in act, when it has all the properties in this same moment and in power, when they still have not developed the properties, but will have them in a future. For example, a boy is an adult in power, but a boy in act.

For Aristotle the mind or psique is the first act of all the things, is what makes possible that we feel and perceive. They exist besides, three types of psique: vegetative (of the plants), sensitiva (of the animals) and rational (of the man). The human psychology bases in the five senses. Aristotle pensabto that the processes of knowledge produce through the senses. It sustained that the mind in the moment of the birth is like a table rasa, lacks innate ideas and everything depends of the learning. Learn depends directly of the memorria, that works in base to the similarity (relating alike things), the contrast (observing differences) and the contigüidad (remember things that are boards in space and time).

Aristotle affirmed that the processes of motivation were guided by two poles: I like and I dislike. Our mind guides us to the like and refuses or separates us of the dislike. The end last of any motivation is the happiness and this achieves with the research of the autoperfeccionamiento; be more perfect and complete. We have to give a big jump in the history to find another big contribution to what considers the base of the philosophical psychology, of the hand of René Descartes (1596-1650), considered the first modern man by his penstomention. It belonged to the French nobility. It was very interested in the mathematics, the science and the philosophy, and decided to combine his intellectual purposes with the trips. It happened several years sawtojando by Europe, frequently like voluntary knight in diverse armies. In 1649 Descartes accepted an invitation to turn into professor of philosophy in the court of Queen Cristina of Sweden. It died to the following year in Stockholm. Descartes posited the doctrine of the intandraccionismo, as which the body and the mind influence between yes in some measure, and that the point of interaction between both finds in the gland pineal. Also it argued that it had to exist an external universe to the I pensante, a no opaque universe to the faculties cognoscitivas of the man. It writes the famounder book Speech of the method in 1637, where exposes that podandmos doubt of all (of what perceive), but of a thing can not doubt, that I am doubting; and if I am doubting it is that I think, and if I think it is that I exist. Of here his famous sentence think, afterwards exist (cogito ergo sum). For Descartes there are three things of which can not doubt: of the I or of the Thought, of the World by his extension and of God by his infinitud. For him the psychic is the conscious, or was all what exists in our consciousness: the imagination, the fantasy, the dreams, the memories... It sustained that any idea that present to the mind at the same time of a clear and distinct way had to be true. The clear is what presents of immediate way to the mind and the distinct is what at the same time is clear and incondicionado. Descartes said that the distinct knows per, his evidence is independent of any condition limitorra.

THE STUDY OF THE PSYCHOLOGY and the knowledge and differentiation of the phenomena or facts psicológicos are so remote like the origin of the science in general. In his more ancient meaning, the psychology, like treaty of the human soul, exists since the humanity began to do philosophy and science. The most general psychology, call afterwards philosophical psychology or metaphysical psychology (or also rational psychology by some, but that does not have to confuse with psicología racionalista). During the first stage of his development, the psychology appears subjected to the general conception of the Universe. Only little by little it attains precision, and goes entering no only the observation but also the experimentation (already in the 19th century), doing of her a discipline differentiated, with an object delimited, that tackles already empirically, already experimentally, already philosophically or PN empirical and experimental methods originals.

Socrates and Plato posed the problem of the human being and of his life anímica. Sensitive world and intelligible world were considered in terms of lejanía and is precisely the soul the one who establishes the bow of union between the authentic be and the deceptive world of the sensitive. With Aristotle founds the psychology like philosophical science, and arrives to knowledges that permtonecen valid, as they can be: the relative problem to the way of knowledge or the distinction between the vegetative lives, sensitive, and rational. His treaty Peri Psichés (On the soul) constitorye a true scientific investigation-natural of the processes biopsíquicos, although, as it was unavoidable in the speculations of the period, take part elements that do not proceed of the direct experience, or that depend on a peculiar conception of the Universe.

IN SUMMARY, THE THOUGHT of Aristotle affirms in this regard the following: «psique» identifies with «life» and «rational thought human», as we attribute life to a be when some of these processes takes place in him: reason, perceive, movement and quiescencia in a place, movimention vegetative, for example breath, pulse, digestion, growth, thought. They give three levels of the anímico: the vegetative, the sensory and the rational.

Of the perception and dam itntación originates the tendency, as where there is perception there is also pleasure and pain, and where these exist gives necessarily the wish. The studies of Aristotle influence decisively in the back philosophical tradition. When translating his writings and his comments to the Arab and of this to the mediaeval Latin, from the beginning of the 13th century, the psychological studies are sintetizados by the authors of this century.

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OF ALL THESE SYNTHESES, the one who has persisted in the modern psychology is the one of Saint Thomas of Aquino (1225-1274) that essentially distinguishes four ways to relate the human with the world, corresponding to the four powers of the soul: vegetative, sensitiva, intelectiva and apetitiva. In this distinction, Saint Thomas concedes an attention and special deal to the human being. Of the humanity is characteristic, essential and exclusive, the power intelectiva to reason and the one to want to freely the irruption of the soul in the human body by work of God. Therefore, like the human being only by the understanding and the free will can arrive to God, Saint Thomas studies especially like human his soul intelectiva, devoting hardly attention to the component of the animal mechanism of the human in favour of the study of the upper faculty. This traditional posture, or this fundamental attention to the most specific human, follows teniendo his active influence in the modern psychology in a lot of authors, between which quote to Viktor Frankl and to Régis Jolivet.

But, as it signalled, of the purely metaphysical or philosophical study of the psychology goes llandgando little by little to a try reconstruct the general or philosophical synthesis with the look put in particular studies of empirical type, as we see in Descartes. This considers to the compound reality of two fundamental species: the extensive and the pensante, the first governed by a pure mecanicismo and the second by the freedom; but it does not achieve to connect them well, deriving of him materialist or spiritualistic rationalisms according to that diverse authors award primacy to one or another reality. Christian Wolff (1679-1754) was the first that, systematising the raciontolismo of Leibniz, distinguished between empirical psychology and rational psychology, continuing like this the disconnection racionalista; and of this synthesis wolffiana starts Kant to elaborate his discussed thought.

IN THE 18TH CENTURY, the psychology that studies separates increasingly of the metaphysics, and continuando in the rationalism, posits a base that tries to be more scientific: the one of not accepting at all that it do not proceed of the sensitive experience. The human being, like this, considers essentially like body (like extensive reality), and then between the human being and other species no habría more than a difference of degree; the act human would be resulted only of a game of strengths, sensitive stimuli and reactions of the senses. This is the posture of the empiricism.

To the empiricism no longer interests him so much the essence of the soul, but his demonstrations and these centradas in a conocimiento through the experience of Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and experience sensible of the philosophise english Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). The philosopher and English doctor John Locke (1632-1704), does the distinction between internal experience (reflection) and external experience (senstoción).

His more important contribution to the psychology resides in that it did explicit the posibilidades of a theory of the association, that had to begin with the data of the experience and theto borar the laws that govern the interrelationships and successions of some experiences with others; the germen of the asociacionismo already was evident in the work of Hobbes, which to his time has precedesntes in Aristotle. The exhibition of Locke of the consequences of the empiricism and of the posibiligive, by means of the analysis, to comprise the origin and organisation of the ideas, endowed to the empirical approach of a greater diffusion and fortress.

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LATER, THE BISHOP AND Irish philosopher George Berkeley (1685-1753) used the concept of «sensory qualities» and turned into one of the founders of the theory of the association. But the philosopher and man of science, the scottish David Hume (1711-1776) matiza better the terms: feeling, representation and idea; the feelings are able primary experiences to leave a footprint in the memory and go back to present  like representations; these reprandsentaciones are parallel to the feelings, save in the part that the fantasy or the intelligence alters by relation with other feelings; these alterations can be of four types, according to Hume: by similarity, contrast, vecindad and causality. What understands by ideas supports on these representations, and for Hume the only auténticamente safe that approaches us to the reality would be the feelings.

The philosopher, psychologist and pedagogo German Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) builds a scientific rational psychology based in a «mechanics of the consciousness», as only support of the psychic phenomena, on which goes to operate the asociacionismo. The german psychologist Friedrich Eduard Beneke (1798-1854) proclaimed openly that the psychology had to be «the natural science of the human soul», and the philosopher and logical German Rudolf Hermann Lotze (1817-1881) tried to reach a psychological conception that satisfied to the natural sciences. It is to stand out the workof l english writer Thomas Brownand (1605-1682), that procured to give an empirical treatment to the problem of the mental connections and undertook the analysis of the multiple factoranimal that determine the course of the association billing his famous «secondary laws», as which the psychic life is not a simple concatenation of data of the senses, but what characterises it is the capacity to attract relations.

His contributions made possible the development ulterior of the asociacionismo with the naturalistic, philosopher, psychologist, anthropologist and english sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), the philosopher, psychologist and scottish educator Alexander Bain (1818-1903) and the historian, economist, politólogo and philosopher escocés James Mill (1773-1836).

Although the classical line of the theory asociacionista has been argued, the asociacionismo gave life to a lot of psychological movements; like this, for example, it inspired big part of the initial works of Pierre-Marie-Félix Janet (1859-1947), of l medical austrian neurologist of jewish origin Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and of l medical psychiatrist, psychologist and swiss essayist Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961); it outlined the first works on the answers conditioned; and it served of guide to the studies on the learning effected by  the psychologist and pedagogo american Anddward Thorndike (1874-1949) and of the philosopher and german psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909); also it has given strength to the psychology humanist and keeps in the actuality the orígandnes humanists in the psychology of the postmodernity.

THANKS TO THE ENORMOUS development of the natural sciences in the first-half of the s. XIX and the aparición of the scientific method-experimental, delimiting of the scientific method-philosophical, goes delimiting also the field of the psychological or psychic, like a group of peculiar phenomena, observable and estudiables empirical and experimentally, attending especially to the data of the consciousness.

They remain like this the general problems and the study of the subject beings of these phenomena in the field more typical of the philosophical or metaphysical psychology of thev ivientes; although many do not darse of this, and wrongly abandon or, better, pretengive to abandon the philosophy. But as it is impossible that the man abandon the intellectual and philosophical knowledge, appear crowd of pseudo philosophies or pseudo metaphysical like sample the history of the rationalism, that interpret many times mistakenly the experimental data.

WITH THE PHYSIOLOGIST, psychologist and german philosopher Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), creator in 1879 of the first laboratory of experimental psychology in the university of Leipzig, the psychology cormienza to study really with the scientific method-experimental. The beginnings of this psychology have his more next base in the psicofisiología; sure enough, all these first experimental psychologists are before that at all physiologists. In his studies on the feeling and perception, Wundt bases his scientific analysis in three experimental principles: the principle of artificiality, that consists in the power to cause the apparition of the process that treats  to study by means of circumstances established previously; the principle of verificabilidad of conditions, and the principle of repetibilidad by which each result obtained has to subject to a review repeating the investigations and the conditions in that it made  the first expandrimento. Like this it enters in general lines the experimental method. But Wundt interprets the psychic and the physical simply like two different ways to refer to a same realigive; like this, then, all phenomenon belongs so much to the psychology as to the physics, and does not distinguish the phenomena that, even having physical repercussion, are, however, something more.

For Wundt, the psychic phenomenon, the anímico, has character of process; that is to say, the contenitwo of consciousness never are constant objects, but fleeting phenomena, that continuously happen ones to others. Therefore, and this is the important, is impossible an exact observation no founded in the experience; it is, in consequence, absolutely necessary a method experimental. The important is not to know what the phenomenon was in yes, but «foresee» the comporttomention of the phenomena; verify facts and check laws. All the contents of conciencia are composed of elementary units: feelings and perceptions. With this restriction of the field of the consciousness (remain excluded other diverse data and elements), Wundt will base his psychology in an almost exclusive study on the feeling and the perception and the problems more directly aroused by these «elements of consciousness».  

Like an appearance of the psicología in what experimental analysis of the phenomena of consciousness can understand, beyond all doubt, the obstinacy to measure the feelings. This facet of the experimental psychology, whose study persists until our days, took place in the call psicofísica and in the psicofisiorlogía of the 19th century. The most notable authors of this movement are, as it corresponds to the century, physiologists before psychologists: Weber, Fechner and Helmholtz are the main damntantes, (physiological psychology).

THE GERMAN DOCTOR ERNST Heinrich Weber (1795-1898), the one who fundamentally was physiologist, works with the senses of the sight and the touch and employs the traditional concept of threshold; to structure of a scientific way these experiences, saw forced to study also the indispensable psychological conditions to ensure the homogeneity of the data. The philosopher and polish psychologist Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887), that was not physiologist but physicist, makes his work with base in the Theory Weberiana. With his teacher and inside the concrete field of the psicofísica tries to join and relate the mental phenomena (psico) and the corporal phenomena (physical).

That is to say, it tries to see the relation between the calls traditionally «psychic energies» and «physical energies». It describes the relativity of the sensory phenomena. And it concludes with that the action of the stimuli is not absolute but relative. On this base will systematise Wundt his scientific psychology. Following this guideline, Hermann von Helmholtz systematises the conocimientos psychophysiologic of the auditory and optical feelings, basing his study in the senstoción like novelty of expression of the psychic event.

The study of the physical and physiological phenomena correlated with the prompt psychic facts saw displaced by the application of the introspection to the experimental method. Oswald Külpe (1862-1915), disciple and assistant of Wundt, presents like half of investigation the introspección and shows that it is possible the study of the upper psychic processes of empirical form. For this author the method of the introspection is fundamental for the psychology, until the point that it constitutes the main instrument for the study of the human nature; without him the psychology would be purely physiological, and in her would study the structures and isolated functions of the consciousness or would turn into physical. Thus it advocates that the introspection has to transform in a true scientific instrument; that is to say, it has to be systematic and controlled. He and his disciples, the called school of Wurzburgo, between which find Narziss Kaspar Ach, August Wilhelm Messer, Karl Bühler, Karl Marbe and others, treated of confirsea these criteria attaining a phenomenology of the psychic life.

Through the theory of the thought without images or of the studies on the volición arrived to the investigation of the upper levels of the psychism, in a degree such, that, as it signals Juan José López Ibor, the influence of the school of Wurzburgo has been decisive in the back evolution of the psicología. His interest by the psychology of the thought and the decided eagerness to orient the psychological investigation to spheres of the distinct conscious life of the feelings and images have a value of undoubted interest.

THE SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATION of all the psychology of the form (approximate translation of the German term Gestalt, that also means configuration), that an all is not equal to the sum of the parts, is not a discovery of the German psychologists of principle of the 20th century. Real mind, all the philosophy that has criticised, and that is not, in a word, the mecanicismo, believes and knows this foundation. The human body for all the philosophers, except the mecanicistas, is something more than an aggregated of parts; it is unit, whole organised that surpasses the simple sorma of his parts. However, in the experimental psychology this idea results new; so new like that at the beginning the psychology of the gestalt was lined by the experimentalistas and empiristas of improcedente and revolutionary. The psychology of the form has his roots in the observtociones of some disciples of Franz Brentano, as Carl Stumpf, Anton Marty, Alexius Meinong and especially Christian von Ehrenfels: his true founder is Max Wertheimer and his more important representatives, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka and Kurt Lewin.

The gestaltistas do not deny of an absolute way the value of the experiences psicofísicas and psychophysiologic, but coincide with the understanding psychology and with the phenomenology in considering that here it does not finish the psychic reality. On the other hand, they coincide with the behaviourism in his criticism of the exclusive predominance of the introspective methods, but also accuse to the behavioural and to the reflexorlogos to have left to drag by the method of the association.

Von Ehrenfels noticed That any melody was perceived by the senses and the psychism like a form that carries in himself a rhythm and a peculiar relation of the musical notes that constitute the same essence of this melody. The Gestalt of the melody is not properly a succession of notes (composition of elements) but a phenomenon of the whole. The fenómandus psychic are structured of the same way; by complexes that are, a data psicológico constitutes a Gestalt. A sentence, for example, is not constituted by a sum of letters or words, but it contains primariamente a supplementary element that estructorra in a form. The publication of Wertheimer on the perception of the apparent movement, given to know in 1912, went the first contribution of the school of the Gestalt. But they were Köhler and Koffka those who elaborated the fundamental concepts of the gestaltismo.

The psychology of the form has, then, his starting point in the study of the perception, but soon applied his principles to the field of the thought and of the intelligence, to the learning, mandmoria, psychic evolution, behaviour, etcetera. That is to say, what in a principle initiated like an attempt of esclarecer the partial problem of the visual perception, finished for demanding an integral review of what some thought were the fundamental principles of the science. As we have said, the Psychology of the form pronounces against of the concept according to which the elements, considered like existences between yes, constitute the matter that it is formed the perception. In other words: the elementalismo no only gives a false image; it prevents besides observe what is faced with we.

THE ERROR OF THE ELEMENTS brings like consequence the one of the associations and the analysis of the experience is not by no means identical to the original experience. The behaviourism does not admit more than the experience objetivable, in front of the introspecciornismo, whose method is an internal observation of the mind. However, the psychology gestaltista admits somehow the two basic principles of both directions: the behaviour and the consciousness; but it does not admit in way any the exclusive use of one of them like method. In consequence, erige in intermediary and participates at the same time of the behaviour and of the consciousness, of the experimentable and of the no experimentable.

Psychology Terms

ABANDONMENT. Loss of real or imaginary affection that experiences an individual. Between other aportaciones psychoanalytic on the abandonment stands out the one of R. Spitz, author that emphasized the grave consequences ulteriores that causes in the boy the prolonged separation of his mother, espandcialmente if it produces during the second semester of life. According to Spitz, if the hard separation more than three months, can sobrevenir a grave picture that designated anaclitic depression (v.). By his part, the Swiss psychiatrist G. Guex Described the syndrome of abandonment like an altertoción psicopatológica, whose main characteristic is the anxiety that causes the abandonment mtoterno and a strong need of security. The picture of syndrome of abandonment is frequent in people recluidas in institutions like hospitals, orphanages, asylums, confined and prisons. Thus, also it uses the term abandon institutional.

ABBREACTION. In the psychoanalytic therapy, process to download the psychic tension generated by a traumatic experience, reviving it by means of his verbalización or through acts, ingene andral in presence of the therapist. It is a term used by Breuer and by Freud (1895). The abreacción can suceder in the course of a psicoterapia, in the hypnosis or spontaneously. The term also applies inside the method of the catharsis.

Abstinence, Syndrome of. Group of annoyances (physical and psychic symptoms) that appear in the subjects habituados to the consumption of a determinate drug, when it interrupts histod ministración or influences in his action, by means of the application of a specific antagonist. Dichos symptoms, called also of deprivation or withdrawal, are specific and characteristic of each type of drug and his apparition denotes, with frequency, although no always, the existence of physical dependency or addiction.

ABSTRACTION. Process in virtue of the cual separates or isolates some or some qualities of an object or of an action on the same (empirical abstraction), or the forms that will allow to apprehend said contents (abstraction reflexionante). The process of abstraer occurs int ortwo the levels of the development of the intelligence, from the senso-engines until the highest Piaget will distinguish two fundamental types of abstraction: empirical and reflexionante, and menciornará also the abstraction pseudoempírica and the reflexionada like particular cases.

Abulia. Lack of will, inability to execute a voluntary act or take a decisión. The patient wishes to carry out an act, but lacks the necessary strength to do it. It does not refer to a perturbation motora, but of the will. As And. Bleuler, treats of one of the basic symptoms of the schizophrenia. Also it appears in cerebral organic processes generally located in the frontal lobule, as well as in the catatonía, the hysteria, the melancholy and the psicastenia.

Boredom. Emotional state of dissatisfaction inside an existence that, during this period, perceives like insulsa and without sense.

Action. An action is all active intervention of the subject that recae on objects of the world (for example hold the biberón) or on other actions made by the same subject (for example an action can compensate or cancel another previous action),. With the end of adaptrto the surroundings and organise internally. The action is an essential concept of Piaget bycua nto can consider it like the unit last of analysis of the intelligent behaviour. There is diverse types of actions, from the actions senso-motoras until the actions internalised, standing out inside this last group the operations, that is to say, the actions intriorizadas reversible.

Action internalised. Term that designates the action once that this is carried by the boy of the plane senso-engine to the plane of the thought, event that marks the limit between the pandriodos senso-engine and preoperatorio, around the two years, that is to say, the beginning of the función semiotic, function that will allow him precisely represent inwardly the material action. When these actions internalised tornan afterwards reversible, receive the name of operations. The action internalised designates also mental action, in opposition tothe toc ción sensomotriz, that is material. Also it is used to to call it action imagined, thought or inclorunder symbolic, in opposition to the action sensomotriz that is real or physical.

Action sensomotriz. Type of action founded exclusively in perceptions and/or in movimientos, and that it is characteristic of the period sensomotor of the development of the intelligence. It is used to to designate it also material or practical action, for oponerla to the actions internalised, that are mental. Examples: hold the pacifier, throw of a rope, etc. Is possible to classify the toc ciones sensomotrices in two big groups: actions inherited (reflections) and actions aprendigive (habits).

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID. It is the chemical that is the universally commissioned material of the inheritance, and his function is to register and transmit the characteristics of a cell or organism of a generation to another. It belongs to a class of Sour called moleculesNuc léicos and when possessing a sugar of five carbons (pentose) called desoxirribosa receives the name of Desoxirribonucleico. The acid desoxirribonucleico (DNA) is an organic molecule whose andstructura has the form of a double propeller or helicoid. The molecules of DNA are the jointogive elementary from which conform the genes.

ACCOMMODATION. In the theory piagetiana is the modification of the frames of reference or esquandbut mental existent to have in new consideration information and include new experiences of such form that the subject adapt to the realities that present him the half, looking for always an equilibración. Process in virtue of the cual the environment produces modificaciornes in the living being, or this modifies by influence of the environment. The essence of the acomodación is precisely this process to adapt to the varied demands or requerimientos that the world of the objects imposes to the subject, applicable definition specifically to the acomodación exógena. The acomodación can be biological or cognoscitiva and, according to another criterion, also can be exógena or endogenous. The acomodación does not exist isolatedly: all behaviour involves acomodación and assimilation that are the two appearances indisociables of the adaptación.

ACROPHOBIA. See phobias. Phobia to the high places.

ATTITUDE. In general it is taken like a disposal for the action based in options afectigo and cognitive. Predisposition of the person to answer of a determinate way in front of a stimulus after evaluating it positive or negatively. Usually it understands by attitude the tendency determinant or the way to proceed usual in front of successive situations. As To thel port is a Psychic and nervous disposal, organised by the experience, that exerts ani nfluencia orientadora on the reactions of the individual like form of basic reaction.

ACTIVITY. In Psychology, the capacity that possess the alive organisms to act.

ACT. In the Aristotelian philosophy, the reality of the be, the be current. The boy in act is boy and in power man; the seed in act is seed and in power tree. This notion is important in the Aristotelian psychology because it will serve for the understanding of the soul; like this, for example, the tradición Aristotelian-tomista defines the soul like the act of those beings that have life inp ortencia. (See power).

FAILED ACTS. In his Psicopatología of the daily life, Freud shows with innumerable examples how the normal people, in his daily deal with the other, can make actions that contradict his conscious intention and that apparently are desprovistas of sense. The analysis teachs, however, that the subject has an unseen and unaware intention with the realisation of said acts fallidos.

ADAPTATION. State in which the subject establishes a relation of balance and carente of confliccough with his social environment. It is also called adjust and is the object of study in the school funcionalista. In the theory of Jean Piaget is the construction of mental representations of the world in the interaction with him. It is a reaction of the person like form to answer to a situation or circumstance. The consequence of the adaptation is the modification of the comporttomention. A lot of complexes or emotional disequilibriums answer to a failure in the adaptación. The continuous adaptation of the human being to the circumstances of the surroundings constitutes an essential sign of balance and mental health.

ADAPTATION, GENERAL. Syndrome of. Group of physical and psychic symptoms of character negtotivo that appear when the subject has to confront to a novelty.

ADDICTION. Toxicomanía, drogodependencia or dependency of substances psicoactivas, physiological need and/or psychological of a chemical, that gives place to the loss of control on his consumption. The dependency can manifest by symptoms of tolerance (worry by the obtaining and use of the substance; utilisation of the substance in spite of the forecast of probtobles adverse consequences; efforts repeated to abandon or control his consumption) and by symptoms of abstinence (withdrawal or suppression when it leaves to administer the substance).

PSYCHOLOGICAL ADDICTION. It is a p atrón of persistent behaviour, that characterises by: the wish or the need to continue a determinate activity that situates out of the voluntary control; a tendency to increase the frequency or the quantity of activity with the step of the time; the psychological dependency of the pleasant effects of the activity; and a negative effect on the individual and the society. They have described psychological addictions to the game (of bets or of chance, video games), to the work (workaholics American), to the sex (eroticism, pornography, etc.), to the television, to some sports, etc.

ADMINISTRATION BY AIMS. System of management that involves a planning andstratégica of the company, that has to define put them and how achieve them to improve the rendimention and the motivation.