Paul Against the Idols: A Contextual Reading of the Areopagus Speech

By Flavien Pardigon and William Edgar

The story of Paul's visit to the city of Athens with its speech delivered before the Areopagus council is one of the best-known and most-celebrated passages of the Acts of the Apostles. Being the only complete example of an apostolic address to "pure pagans" recorded, it has consistently attracted the attention of historians, biblical scholars, theologians, missionaries, apologists, artists, and believers over the centuries.
Interpretations of the pericope are many and variegated, with opinions ranging from deeming the speech to be a foreign body in the New Testament to acclaiming it as the ideal model of translation of the Christian kerygma into a foreign idiom. At the heart of the debate is whether the various parts of the speech must be understood as Hellenistic or biblical in nature--or both.
Paul Against the Idols defends and develops an integrated contextual study of the episode. Reading the story in its Lukan theological, intertextual, narrative, linguistic, and historical context enables an interpretation that accounts for its apparent ambivalence. This book thus contributes to the ongoing hermeneutical and exegetical scholarly discussions surrounding this locus classicus and suggests ways in which it can contribute to a Christian theology of religions and missiology.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Pickwick Publications
• Release date: Feb 1, 2019
• ISBN: 9781725249486

Flavien Pardigon

Flavien Pardigon teaches at a variety of theological institutions on four continents.

Book preview

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Paul Against the Idols

A Contextual Reading of the Areopagus Speech

Flavien Pardigon

foreword by William Edgar

33216.png

Paul Against the Idols

A Contextual Reading of the Areopagus Speech

Copyright © 2019 Flavien Pardigon. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical publications or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. Write: Permissions, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 199 W. 8th Ave., Suite 3, Eugene, OR 97401.

Pickwick Publications

An Imprint of Wipf and Stock Publishers

199 W. 8th Ave., Suite 3

Eugene, OR 97401

www.wipfandstock.com

paperback isbn: 978-1-62564-795-5

hardcover isbn: 978-1-4982-8742-5

ebook isbn: 978-1-7252-4948-6

Cataloguing-in-Publication data:

Names: Pardigon, Flavien, author. | Edgar, William, 1944–, foreword.

Title: Paul against the idols : a contextual reading of the Areopagus speech / Flavien Pardigon.

Description: Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2019 | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: isbn 978-1-62564-795-5 (paperback) | isbn 978-1-4982-8742-5 (hardcover) | isbn 978-1-7252-4948-6 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Paul—the Apostle, Saint | Bible—Acts—Criticism and interpretation, etc. | Theology of religions (Christian theology) | Natural theology | Athens, Attica, Greece

Classification: bs2595 p172 2019 (print) | bs2595 (ebook)

Manufactured in the U.S.A. 01/29/19

Table of Contents

Title Page

Foreword

Preface

Abbreviations

Introduction

Part One: Contextualizing and Orienting Our Reading of the Areopagus Speech

Matters of Introduction

Chapter 1: Luke’s Theology

Chapter 2: Luke’s Use of the Old Testament

Chapter 3: Luke’s Narrative Setting for the Story of Paul in Athens

Part Two: A Contextual Reading of the Areopagus Speech

Chapter 4: The Narrative Frame for Paul’s Areopagus Speech (Acts 17:16–22a, 33–34)

Chapter 5: Beginning an Oration (Acts 17:22–23)

Chapter 6: The Creator-God Is Lord of Heaven and Earth (Acts 17:24–25)

Chapter 7: Incriminating Evidence: The Divine Design for Mankind (Acts 17:26–27)

Chapter 8: Convicted of Lèse-Majesté (Acts 17:28–29)

Chapter 9: Eschatological Proclamation of Judgment (Acts 17:30–31)

Exegetical Epilogue: Paul the Servant-Figure in Luke’s New Exodus Judgment

Conclusion

Appendix: Some Further Reflections on the Subject of Theology of Religions

Bibliography

To Paul and Alison Wells

teachers, mentors, friends, fellow-servants of Christ,

and much, much more

Q. 1. What is the chief and highest end of man?

A. Man’s chief and highest end is to glorify God, and fully to enjoy him forever.

—Westminster Larger Catechism (1648)

Foreword

There are many causes for the recent surge of interest in world religions. Ever since the explorations of Asian religions that came into vogue in the 1960s, many in the West have held a fascination for certain blends of Hinduism, Yoga, Buddhism, ayurvedic medicine, and the like. Most often embracing these views was selective, as was the case of the Beatles returning from India with their long hair and a song, Within You, Without You, mingling the sitar and tabla with a rock feeling, but without giving up their bank accounts or middle-class lifestyles. Young people in those days were often searching for alternatives to what they perceived to be the conformist, moralistic culture of the West.¹ In the bargain, though, a number of serious students of Asian religions explored them more deeply, resulting in the establishment of serious academic fields of comparative religions or of specialized studies in various religions.

Another contributor to the greater interest in world religions is the more recent trend termed post-secular society.² This expression, describing characteristics predominantly of the West, is not meant to deny the fact of secularization, but to argue that alongside the decline of Christian influence we can observe a resurgence of religion. Jürgen Habermas, himself a liberal secularist, argues that citizens must be open to considering the influence of religion, if only because Western culture is so rooted in a Judeo-Christian heritage. He detects three major reasons for the shift toward the post-secular: (1) Global conflicts where religious language is often used to baptize one side or both have had the effect of diminishing the secular zeal of many; (2) Politics which emphasize values increasingly promotes religious voices. (3) Immigration often brings people to secular countries who bring with them their strong religious way of life.³

The resurgence of Islam, the prominent role of religion in political discourse, as well as the resilience of broad religious belief and practice in places such as the United States, has created something of a crisis of faith among sociologists.⁴ Peter L. Berger, a former leader in secularization theory, has changed his mind about the validity of forecasts about the abandonment of religion in the modern world. Modernity, he discovered, is not the predictor of religious decline once heralded by a majority of sociologists. World leaders have made unexpected acknowledgments of the importance of religion for understanding our planet. Former Prime Minister of Great Britain Tony Blair has converted to Roman Catholicism, and created the Faith Foundation, which aims at promoting religious literacy. You cannot understand the modern world unless you understand the importance of religious faith, he affirmed. His main concern is to bring about better comprehension in order to avoid the threat of extremist religion.⁵ When Pope Benedict XVI visited France, putatively the most secular country in Western Europe, then President Sarkozy rather shocked French secularists by calling for dialogue with religion, the refusal of which would be a cultural and intellectual error.⁶

Partly because of these shifts, Christian theology has become more aware of the challenge of world religions than it ever was. Roman Catholic theology, especially since Vatican II, has taken a strong interest in the identity of those outside the church. Rather than the we-they tone of previous generations, the advocates of aggiornamento meeting from 1962 to 1965 have moved resolutely toward being inclusive as far as possible. The following statement from Nostra Aetate gives the idea:

The Catholic Church rejects nothing that is true and holy in these religions. She regards with sincere reverence those ways of conduct and of life, those precepts and teachings which, though differing in many aspects from the ones she holds and sets forth, nonetheless often reflect a ray of that Truth which enlightens all men. Indeed, she proclaims, and ever must proclaim Christ the way, the truth, and the life (John

14

:

6

), in whom men may find the fullness of religious life, in whom God has reconciled all things to Himself (

2

 Cor.

5

:

18

–

19

).

While this statement does not deny access through the Roman Catholic Church, it leans over backwards to acknowledge insights from other religions. The expression reflect a ray of that Truth which enlightens all men is telling. While endorsing Christ as the way, the truth and the life, it rather modestly sees in him only the fullness of religious life, whatever that may mean. This kind of statement opened the door for further bridges into various religions. Karl Rahner (1904–84) asked Catholics to recognize Anonymous Christians.⁷

Among Protestants considerable energy has been expended on the subject of the unevangelized or the unreached. Missionary theologians such as Hendrik Kraemer (1888–1965) and J. H. Bavinck (1895–1964) paved the way in the twentieth century toward a greater consciousness of religions such as Hinduism and Islam. Their goal as conservative Christians was to improve the effectiveness of evangelization of adherents to non-Christian worldviews. More recently two groups have emerged which have sought to argue for a kind of syncretism. The first is generally known as inclusivists. They assert that there are other paths to salvation than consciously professing faith in Jesus Christ. The second is called the insider movement. This group affirms that converts to the Christian faith need not abandon the social or cultural practices of their former religion. Thus, while following Christ at some level, it is permissible to pray in a Mosque, or even to call oneself a Hindu Christian. While the present volume does not address the particular representatives of these approaches in any detail, the exegesis of the biblical texts will certainly speak to the issues involved.

A few, more orthodox theologians, have tackled some of the issues surrounding world religions. Among the most notable are Daniel Strange, who has extensively analyzed inclusivism, and has sought to discover a truly biblical theology of religions.⁸ Another conservative, David Garner, has done significant work on the insider movement which claims that one can be an authentic Christian while remaining inside one’s social and cultural heritage, including religious practices which on the surface would seem quite foreign to the Christian faith. Garner is ultimately critical of this view.⁹ But much more work needs to be done.

Accordingly, this volume by Flavien Pardigon is a most welcome addition to what we can hope is a growing body of literature by conservatives addressing the questions surrounding the theology of religions. Among its many virtues, Paul Against the Idols combines insights into the arguments of the various inclusivists with sound, detailed biblical exegesis. The focal point of this study is Paul’s speech in the Areopagus, recorded in Acts 17:16–34. This remarkable discourse is significant because it is the fullest missionary address recorded in the Book of Acts, one which is addressed to a mixed audience including Epicurean and Stoic philosophers. The speech is a model of apologetic persuasion. Not strictly an evangelistic outreach, but rather an apologetic communication, it is also rich with implications for the sorts of questions raised by the current debates.

Dr Pardigon convincingly demonstrates that Paul’s discourse, when understood in its fullest context, is both a radical critique of idolatry and a clarion call for faith in Christ as the only way for salvation. The critique of idolatry draws on the Old Testament, particularly the Book of Isaiah. Here is where we find the heart of Pardigon’s argument about world religions. Over against inclusivists, he shows that when the Areopagus discourse is read in context, it cannot be understood as setting forth any real common ground between the gospel and other religions. When Paul quotes the local poets (Acts 17:28) he is not endorsing their basic views, but rather noting insights that emerge in spite of their fundamental framework. When he notes the Athenian Altar to the Unknown God, he is not suggesting they had taken the first steps toward the truth. Indeed, the discourse is a strong attack on human religions. At the same time, Paul does not end with a negative critique, but goes on to proclaim the good news, as Dr Pardigon underscores. The author of Luke-Acts finds in the triumph of the gospel a New Exodus, where the Lord gathers his people from Jerusalem to the end of the earth (Acts 1:8; 28:11–31). As such Paul’s message heralds not only the impending judgment against all unbelief but also an appeal to repentance, which is at the heart of any sound gospel message.

This book displays extraordinary hermeneutical competence. The author demonstrates a thorough acquaintance with the history of interpretation and the most relevant commentators. Most of all, the book sets forth an orderly, logical and persuasive argument for the uniqueness of the Christian worldview, and the centrality of the gospel of salvation. While not a sociology nor a history of religions, it is a focused theological analysis which should serve the reader as a most appropriate place to begin before moving on to any wider considerations. This volume is a more than welcome addition to the literature on a subject that will only increase in importance.

William Edgar

Professor of Apologetics, Westminster Theological Seminary

1. For a summary of such yearnings see, Paul Oliver, Hinduism and the 1960s: The Rise of a Counter-Culture (London: Bloomsbury Academic,

2014)

.

2. See, Post Secular Society, Peter Nynäs, Mika Lassander, Terhi Utriainen, eds. (Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers,

2012)

.

3. Jürgen Habermas, Secularism’s Crisis of Faith: Notes on Post-Secular Society. New Perspectives Quarterly

25

(

2008

) 

17

–

29

.

4. Peter L. Berger, "The Desecularization of the World: A Global Overview, The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics, Peter L. Berger, ed. (Washington, DC: Ethics & Public Policy Center, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999)

,

1

–

18

.

5. http://tonyblairfaithfoundation.org/foundation.

6. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/worldnews/

2825797

/Pope-Benedict-XVI-visits-France-and-meets-Nicolas-Sarkozy-and-Carla-Bruni-Sarkozy.html?image=

1

.

7. Karl Rahner, Theological Investigations, vol.

14

, David Bourke, trans. (London: Darton, Longman & Todd,

1976)

,

283

.

8. Daniel Strange, The Possibility of Salvation Among the Unevangelised: An Analysis of Inclusivism in Recent Evangelical Theology (Milton Keynes, UK: Paternoster,

2002)

; Daniel Strange, For Their Rock Is Not As Our Rock: An Evangelical Theology of Religions (Nottingham, UK: Apollos,

2014)

.

9. David Garner, High Stakes: Insider Movement Hermeneutics and the Gospel. Themelios

37

.

2

(

2012)

http://legacy.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/article/high_stakes_insider_movement _hermeneutics_and_the_gospel.

Preface

This book is a substantial revision of a PhD dissertation submitted to the faculty of Westminster Theological Seminary (Philadelphia) in December 2007. The degree was awarded by the Trustees and Professors of the seminary in May 2008.

I was originally led to study this passage in the Acts of the Apostles because of its (mis)use by so-called inclusivists in the field of Theology of Religions to defend the notion that the Christian God is somehow at work redemptively in non-biblical religions or ideologies. They allege that Paul’s attitude towards his pagan audience in Athens is rather positive while his words affirm the truth of their (incomplete) knowledge of God and the legitimacy of their worship. So much so that he is keen to adopt their own poets to build his argument and message. Later I discovered that this line of interpretation was not only common among evangelicals, but was typical of distressing trends in missiological thinking and method (of which the so-called Insider Movements and the CAMEL method are avatars) whose influence and impact are increasingly felt worldwide.

The fundamental thesis and argument of the dissertation have not changed, though the manuscript has undergone some serious modifications. I daresay that the version you hold in your hands is a significant improvement on the original as a result. My principal concern all along the process of revision has been to increase the clarity of expression and the quality of argument, not to popularize the book content or idiom. That entailed trimming one full chapter and a few more bits in order to focus almost exclusively on the hermeneutical and exegetical core. It necessitated the translation of various footnotes to the main text. It called for hunting down obscure and muddled language, excessively long or complex sentences, undesirable semantic borrowings from my non-English native language, and infelicitous word choices or syntax. It also required catching up with the scholarship and updating (or filling some gaps in) the bibliography. Finally, I sought to use consistent theoretical frameworks and language to flesh out what were originally mere linguistic and narratological intuitions.

Before anything else I must express my deepest gratitude to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ for sustaining my family and me by the grace of the Spirit through both the initial writing and the recent revision of this book. These were not always easy days, but he saw us through all challenges and difficulties. In all things he has shown himself faithful to his covenant promises and infinitely merciful.

There is no question in my mind that this book, like all books, is the fruit of a team effort. Literally hundreds of people have prayed and loved us through both the writing of the dissertation and the production of this book. Some have even read parts of the manuscript and suggested edits at various points in the double process. These friends’ encouragement, care, and support over the years has been and remains invaluable. My family and I can never repay our debt in one lifetime, but be assured that you have hoarded treasures in heaven.

I was strongly encouraged to get my dissertation published by a number of missionaries and church leaders in the Majority World, who insisted on the relevance and importance its content has for their context and ministry. Dr Daniel Strange pointed me to a publisher who, he thought, could be interested in my work—and he was right. My thanks go to Wipf and Stock Publishers for accepting this book under their Pickwick Publications imprint. I want to express my great appreciation for their patience and for kindly granting multiple extensions as the completion of the work was delayed for one reason or another over the years.

I am extremely grateful to my field committee at Westminster Theological Seminary for allowing me to research and write a highly interdisciplinary dissertation that stretched the boundaries of our department nearly to the point of bursting. Westminster’s historic tradition of weaving together exegesis, biblical theology, systematic theology and apologetics is both exemplary and unique. My book is a tribute to the faculty of this illustrious institution. My advisor, William Edgar, was unwavering in his support even when I was wading through uncharted waters. The external reader, G. K. Beale, offered extensive and extremely helpful feedback on the work and is therefore responsible for many of its subsequent improvements.

There are no words to express the immense privilege it was to be a part of the community at Tyndale House in Cambridge for the past four years. Of course the library holdings are remarkable (and effectively complemented by the various university libraries). I am convinced, however, that the most profitable contribution that Tyndale makes to its guests’ scholarship is found in the innumerable conversations pursued over coffee or lunch. Thank you so much to Peter Williams, Simon Sykes, and all the staff for welcoming me into this extraordinary place and for your friendship. Thank you to the too-many-to-be-named readers who have listened, encouraged, challenged, stretched, corrected, taught, sharpened, and shaped me, and who have pushed me to always do better while warning me regularly against the temptation and idol of academic perfectionism. In this latter regard, a special mention goes to Dirk Jongkind and Katy Smith.

It goes without saying that any remaining weakness or error is my entire and exclusive responsibility.

Our local congregation (Cambridge Presbyterian Church) has been a home and a family to us for the past five years. Thank you for taking us in, loving us, and giving us the opportunity to serve Christ and his Bride among you.

To Inyange—my beloved wife—and Timothée, Nastasja, Agapée, Eden and Hosanna—my dear children: you have made great sacrifices for this book to come into being. Your partnership with me in the gospel is the sine qua non of everything I do. You make life infinitely more interesting and exciting. May the Lord Jesus Christ repay you a hundredfold in return for the husband and father you keep on giving away in his service. Je vous aime de tout mon cœur.

My sole purpose in publishing this book is to glorify God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, and to contribute to the edification of his global Church. Soli Deo gloria!

Abbreviations

AB Anchor Bible

ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by David Noel Freedman. 6 vols. New York: Doubleday, 1992

AnBib Analecta Biblica

ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. Edited by Hildegard Temporini and Wolfgang Haase. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1972–

ANTC Abingdon New Testament Commentaries

ASNU Acta Seminarii Neotestamentici Upsaliensis

BAFCS The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting. Bruce W. Winter, series editor. 5 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993–96

BBET Beiträge zur biblischen Exegese und Theologie

BECNT Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament

BDAG Danker, Frederick W., Walter Bauer, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999

BDF Blass, Friedrich, Albert Debrunner, and Robert W. Funk. A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1961

BegC The Beginnings of Christianity. Part 1: The Acts of the Apostles. Edited by Foakes Jackson, F. J. and Kirsopp Lake. 5 vols. London: Macmillan, 1920–33

BETL Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium

BHT Beiträge zur historischen Theologie

BibInt Biblical Interpretation Series

BNP Brill’s New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Edited by Hubert Cancik. 22 vols. Leiden: Brill, 2002–11

BSLib Biblical Studies Library

BST The Bible Speaks Today

BThS Biblical and Theological Studies

BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentiche Wissenschaft

BZNW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft

CBET Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology

CNT Commentaire du Nouveau Testament

CRINT Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum

DJG Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. Edited by Green, Joel B., Scot McKnight, and I. Howard Marshall. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1992

DSS² García Martínez, Florentino. The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English. 2nd ed. Translated by Wilfred G. E. Watson. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996

EKKNT Evangelisch-katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament

EPRO Etudes préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l’empire romain

ESV English Standard Version

ET English translation

FAT Forschungen zum Alten Testament

FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments

HThKNT Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament

ICC International Critical Commentary

JB Jerusalem Bible

JSNTSup Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series

KEK Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar über das Neue Testament (Meyer Kommentar)

KJV King James Version of the Bible

LCL Loeb Classical Library

LD Lectio Divina

LNTS The Library of New Testament Studies

LSJ Liddell, Henry George, Robert Scott, Henry Stuart Jones, and Roderick McKenzie. A Greek-English Lexicon. 10th ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996

LXX Septuagint

LDGNT Runge, Steven E. The Lexham Discourse Greek New Testament. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2008–14

LNTS The Library of New Testament Studies

MT Massoretic Text

NA²⁷ Nestle-Aland, Novum Testamentum Graece. 27th ed. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1995

NA²⁸ Nestle-Aland, Novum Testamentum Graece. 28th ed. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2012

NASB New American Standard Bible

NEG Nouvelle Edition de Genève

NICNT New International Commentary of the New Testament

NJB New Jerusalem Bible

NovTSup Novum Testamentum Supplements

NPNF¹ Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series 1. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886–89. 14 vols. Reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988–91

NSBT New Studies in Biblical Theology

NTD Das Neue Testament Deutsch

NTG New Testament Guides

NTSI The New Testament and the Scriptures of Israel

OBO Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis

PNTC Pillar New Testament Commentary

AcBib Academia Biblica

SA Studia Anselmiana

SBLMS Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series

SBLSP Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers

SBLSymS Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series

SNTG Studies in New Testament Greek

SNTSMS Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series

SNTW Studies of the New Testament and Its World

SP Sacra Pagina

SR Studies in Religion

SSEJC Studies in Early Judaism and Christianity

SubB Subsidia Biblica

SVF Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta. Edited by Hans Friedrich August von Arnim. 4 vols. Leipzig: Teubne, 1903–24

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Edited by Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich. Translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. 10 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964–76

TNTC Tyndale New Testament Commentaries

TOB Traduction œcuménique de la Bible

UBS⁴ The Greek New Testament. 4th ed. United Bible Societies, 1983

WBC Word Biblical Commentary

WC Westminster Commentaries

WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament

ZECNT Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament

Introduction

Christianity, Religious Pluralism, and the Book of Acts

Porphyry (AD 232–304), an influential Neoplatonist, put this challenge to the Christians of his time:

If Christ declares Himself to be the way of salvation, the Grace and the Truth, and affirms that in Him alone, and only to souls believing in Him, is the way to return to God, what has become of men who lived in the many centuries before Christ came? . . . What, then, has become of such an innumerable multitude of souls, who were in no wise blameworthy, seeing that He in whom alone saving faith can be exercised had not yet favored men with His advent? . . . Why, then, did He who is called the Savior withhold Himself for so many centuries of the world?¹⁰

‍These words capture quite well the typical reaction of any follower of the traditional cults and/or philosophies in the Roman Empire. The unheard-of-before exclusivity and the suspicious novelty of Christianity were both a puzzle and a moral blemish in their eyes.¹¹ What kind of a god could ever require that all other gods and their multi-secular ancestral worship be forsaken? And how immoral it would be for any god to bypass most of mankind and limit his dealings to such a weak, provincial (barbarous!) and insignificant people as the Jews? The emergence of Christianity in what may have been the most religiously pluralistic world to ever exist was a shock and a challenge for both sides.¹²

Though the question of how to make sense of this religious diversity and its history remained mostly academic or dormant in the Western world for most of the period known as Christendom, it sprouted some new shoots with the age of discovery of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The worldwide colonial expansion and the missionary efforts that ensued were fertile ground for its further growth. The nineteenth and twentieth centuries saw its boughs and foliage develop and take up a significant place in scholarly circles and in the general population’s awareness, as well as in Christian theological debates and ecclesiastical movements.¹³ Due to a variety of factors (democratization of international travel, omnipresent media, globalization, mass immigration, secularization, etc.) most people in the world today are confronted by the often-disorienting experience of the very real and concrete plurality and diversity of faiths and personal convictions.¹⁴ In many ways, it appears that we are nearly back to where we started: Christianity has to explain and justify its place and uniqueness in a world where its claim to exclusivity and morality is no longer either evident nor plausible in society’s eyes.

In this context, the book of Acts is a crucial and unparalleled resource for all who are interested in the history of the emergence of Christianity in the ancient Mediterranean world¹⁵—and the incredible transition from a modest Palestinian Jewish origin to the dominant position in the Empire through persecution—, its ability to coexist and dialogue with other faiths or how it should construe and proclaim its peculiar message, the gospel, in any new context. Within this book, the episode that might have captured the attention and imagination of most of its students—whether historians, artists, biblical scholars, theologians, missiologists, or missionaries—is without question the story of Paul’s sojourn in Athens and the oration he delivered before the elites of that glorious city. This discourse—a.k.a. the Areopagitica and the Areopagus speech—has become the biblical locus classicus for the study of Christianity’s encounter with a religiously diverse world in the form of ancient Graeco-Roman paganism, both cultic and philosophical.¹⁶ It is the only biblical or extra-biblical record of a full (summarized but reporting the whole argument) apostolic missionary address to so-called pure pagans, i.e., pagans with no connection whatsoever with the synagogue and the biblical faith.¹⁷ It is strictly sui generis.

Joining the Conversation

The uniqueness of both book and pericope has led to intense scrutiny and extensive study by people with diverse interests, concerns, expectations, and methods. This has produced innumerable debates and competing interpretations. So much so that Luke-Acts has been labelled a storm center in modern scholarship.¹⁸ The scholarship is so diverse and expansive that almost forty years ago the great scholar Joseph Fitzmyer had to concede that no one could cope with all the numerous interpretations that have been proposed for the various problems in the book [here Luke’s Gospel] under discussion.¹⁹ One direct result of this situation is an unending flow of publications, a problem recently captured by C. Kavin Rowe in a striking manner: the fact is that the secondary literature on Acts is no longer full to the brim: it has now burst the dam and threatens to wash away the text of Acts in a torrent of scholarly glossolalia.²⁰ The same is, unsurprisingly, true of the Areopagitica.

We will not, therefore, attempt to provide a complete survey and history of past scholarship, but refer the reader to the standard specialized studies on the subject and the introductions of technical commentaries.²¹ This history illustrates almost perfectly Thomas Kuhn’s model for scientific progress through paradigm shifts.²² For much of the past two centuries, the historical-critical model of scholarship was dominant, even hegemonic, taking a number of different shapes as it faced new challenges. It is not until the 1980s and 1990s that hermeneutical models of a different nature (linguistic and literary especially) began to have an impact on biblical studies in general and Luke-Acts in particular. They have become a lot more mainstream in the 2000s, but have not replaced altogether the historical-critical paradigm (yet?). It seems that we are currently in a transitional period of development where various new models and perspectives are suggested and tested, challenging former ways of conceiving and approaching the field and its object of study.

Certain classic publications can be seen as harbingers of changes to come, as they are like monuments crystallizing the fruits of the then dominant paradigm while also identifying shortcomings or problems and giving space to new perspectives and ideas. For example, the five-volume series The Beginnings of Christianity (1920–33) marks a transition from the models coming from F. C. Baur’s historical reconstruction of earliest Christianity, the Religionsgeschichtliche Schule, Tendenz, and source criticism to the form criticism pioneered in Lukan studies by Cadbury and Dibelius that would dominate the following decades. This began a subtle shift from an exclusive concern for determining what actually happened (in modernist historical terms) to how Luke writes about it. In a similar manner, the commentaries on the book of Acts by Haenchen and Conzelmann and the collection of essays edited by Leander Keck (Studies in Luke-Acts, 1966), though still significantly dependent on Dibelius’ and Vielhauer’s framing of the issues, did open the methodological door to insights coming from Luke’s compositional activity and legitimized—stimulated—a scholarly interest in his theology for its own sake.²³

Finally, it seems that the last major turning point in the history of Acts scholarship occurred with the publication of the commentaries on Acts penned by Fitzmyer, Barrett, Jervell, and Witherington (all published in 1998).²⁴ These were the apex of long scholarly careers for the first three, in which they showed themselves both significantly indebted to and profoundly critical of the inherited paradigms and of the exegeses they spawned. Hence all of them affirmed the historical significance of (Luke-)Acts, the theological importance and originality of its author, the literary quality of his work, the Old Testament and Jewish rootedness of its thought, and its embeddedness in the Graeco-Roman world of the first century AD. The work of these four scholars can thus serve as a suitable window into earlier conversations and a stepping stone toward those started by a generation of scholars sharpened by deconstructionism and benefiting from the literary methodological watershed that accompanied it.²⁵ This is the mediating role they play in Part One of this book.

The Goal and the Journey

In spite of their great interest in the story of Paul in Athens, missiological and theological studies that see in the Areopagitica an exemplar²⁶ and a source for their reflections are generally light exegetically and uninformed of the (recent) specialized scholarship (whatever the particular theological shade of the author). In one way or another (more or less theoretically sophisticated), Paul’s address is construed as a model of contextualization in cross-cultural gospel communication (even of a constructive inter-religious dialogue).²⁷ Rarely do such studies involve original and technical exegesis. Instead they tend to adopt common places (in their particular community) about the speech and its import and/or repeat the opinions of biblical experts—often the exponents of older scholarly paradigms—,²⁸ rarely engaging meaningfully the scholarly debate and the interpretations that would challenge their views. It seems to us that if this biblical story is to play the critical role it deserves in our theologizing about other religions and in determining how to communicate effectively and convincingly with their followers, we cannot be content with such expedients. Our purpose is to offer an original, current, and in-depth exegetical study of Luke’s text that engages with the best and most influential biblical scholarship past and present. The results of our analysis should provide a solid foundation for the appropriation of the Areopagitica’s import with a view to theological elaboration and missiological application. We will therefore limit ourselves to offering some preliminary theological and missiological reflections as they relate to the particulars of the text as we go.

The vexing multiplicity of interpretations of Paul’s Areopagus speech results from the diversity of (philosophical, historical and theological) presuppositions held by students of the text combined with the associated variety of hermeneutical theories and exegetical methods. Making sense of this problem and offering a solution acceptable to most is not within the purview of this book and will not be attempted. Yet, in order to help the reader follow the argument developed throughout the book, it is necessary to make a few hermeneutical points, trusting the interpretation of the text as a whole to demonstrate the validity of the approach adopted. A better interpretation should not only make sense of more data than its alternatives, it must also be able to account for the variety of scholarly opinion.

The biblical scholarship of the past two hundred years has generally tended toward a form of heuristic atomism and dimensional partiality (or myopia), both inherited from modern empirical sciences. This issue is compounded, of course, by the hyper-specialization of the field, the exponential growth of the literature, and the sophisticated nature of some exegetical techniques. This multiplicity of perspectives itself, however, should alert us to the complex nature of the object we are seeking to understand and thus warn us against the dangers of reductionistic and partial methods of study. Rather, it is of the utmost importance that we include all determinative dimensions (at least as many as possible) in our investigation. In our case, that means paying attention to the historical, theological, linguistic, literary, narrative, canonical, intertextual, and rhetorical aspects in a holistic, i.e., organic, unified, interconnected, and dynamic manner.²⁹

The field of semantics has taught us that meaning, whether of a word, a sentence, or a pericope (even a book) is determined or produced by its context, or, better, its (intersecting) contexts. The setting of the Areopagitica is thus constituted by the linguistic specificity of Koine or Hellenistic Greek, the cultural encyclopaedia of the first-century Graeco-Roman world, the message and theology of the author, the literary devices Luke used in composing his work, the micro-narrative framework of Acts 17:16–34 and the macro-narrative of Luke-Acts, the rich intertexture of book, story and speech, and the scriptural history of God’s work of salvation on behalf of his people culminating in the life-death-resurrection-ascension-heavenly session of Jesus and the expansion of the early church. We must hence affirm the methodological heuristic priority of the textual evidence, of course, and will therefore focus on the Lukan—rather than Pauline—meaning of the speech.³⁰

Just like the episodes of a story develop what precedes and prepare what follows, so the chapters in this book build on one another and should all be read in sequence. Part One introduces the scholarly context in which our own research is happening and the interpretive conversation we are joining. It also serves to contextualize and orientate our reading of Acts 17:16–34. The four sections that compose it have a bit of a narrative texture and are more an intellectual journey than an encyclopaedic exposé. The first one is a rapid overview or statement of where we stand concerning traditional questions of introduction. Chapter 1 discusses some key features of Luke’s theology which provide the broader context and some structuring elements of his text and message. We conclude that an essential aspect of Luke’s theology is its dependence on the OT. Chapter 2 looks at Luke’s variegated use of the OT and explores the programmatic role that the book of Isaiah and its New Exodus theme have for Luke-Acts as a whole. Finally chapter 3 quickly maps the macro-narrative context of Paul’s ministry in Athens to situate the story in Luke-Acts. Part Two is made up of our exegesis of the entire pericope. It begins with an analysis of the narrative frame of the episode that Luke has provided for the speech (chapter 4). Chapters 5–9 contain the analysis of each segment of the speech in sequence. An Exegetical Epilogue offers some final considerations of a synthetic nature in conclusion of Part Two.

10. Porphyry’s fifteen-volume work Against the Christians is mostly lost, except for numerous citations preserved in Christian authors seeking to answer his attacks. Kinzig, Pagans and the Bible, 

755

n

21, gives a useful list of existing critical collections of these fragments. Our quote is found in Augustine, Epistulae

102

.

8

(ET NPNF¹, 

1

.

416

).

11. That a divine being would extend his wrath even beyond this dualism [being at war with all rivals] and send down suffering upon human beings simply for their failure to offer him regular cult seemed an even more blasphemous idea. MacMullen, Christianizing, 

18

. At the same time, it should be clear that "polytheism is rather the scheme of life that defines a particular kind of tolerance—the kind that places a missionizing Christianity outside its limits." Rowe, World Upside Down, 

167

(emphasis original).

12. See, for example, Gill, Behind; Winter, Public and Private; and Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians. Scott Hafemann puts it this way: Indeed the pluralism of the modern world is no more dramatic than that faced by Israel or Paul . . . and our situation looks tame in comparison. Moreover, he adds: "To assert the One God of Israel and Jesus as his Messiah, the Son of God, was just as startling and exclusive then as it is now (cf.

1

Co

8

:

5

–

6

; Php

2

:

9

–

11

). George et al., Responses to Inclusivism," 

56

. Useful treatments of religion in the Roman Empire include MacMullen, Paganism and Klauck, Religious Context.

13. To the point of being deemed by many one of the most pressing theological issues in recent years (Zuck, Possibility of Salvation Review, 

497

) and of leading to the appearance and rapid development of Theology of Religions as a distinct field of study (see Kärkkäinen, Theology of Religions, 

22

). A theology of religions is the study of the phenomenon of religious pluralism from a theological—in contradistinction to a philosophical, sociological, psychological, or comparative—methodological perspective. As is probably obvious, in this book we are concerned with a specifically Christian theology of religions.

14. See Taylor, Secular Age for arguably the most illuminating analysis of our times in this regard.

15. As is now commonly recognized by most scholars. See the argument in Hengel, Zur urchristlichen Geschichtsschreibung (ET Earliest Christianity).

16. Paganism here refers to the complex and pervasive religious, cultural, political, and social tapestry constitutive of life in antiquity, in contradistinction with Judaism and Christianity. Though greatly diverse in terms of beliefs and practices, it shared enough fundamental elements constitutive of a basic world and life view (story or grammar) to be identifiable as a distinct entity. In this regard, we use the term (together with its cognate pagan) in the same way it is commonly used by scholars of classical antiquity. For a useful discussion of the terminology and concepts, see Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, 

26

–

47

.

17. Paul and Barnabas’ words in Acts

14

:

15

–

17

, though addressing pure pagans, do not constitute a proclamation of the Christian gospel, but are meant to prevent the Lystrans from sacrificing to them (vv.

14

,

18

).

18. Part of the title of the famous 1966

essay by Van Unnik, Luke-Acts.

19. Fitzmyer, Luke, 

1

.

3

.

20. Rowe, World Upside Down, 

11

. For an idea of the magnitude of the challenge, the reader is encouraged to glance at the bibliography provided by Keener, Acts, 

4

.

3781

–

4082

, which, though of titanic proportion (typeset on three columns in a very small font), still shows gaps in the English-speaking literature (not to mention German, French, Spanish, Italian, etc.).

21. For the history of scholarship on Acts up to the

1980

s, see Gasque, History of Interpretation. For an impressive survey of most noteworthy publications from

1950

to

2005, see Bovon, Luke the Theologian⁵⁵

.

For a recent survey of the extreme variety of scholarly opinions and methods up to the early

2000

s, see Penner, Madness in Method.

22. Cf. Kuhn, Structure of Scientific.

23. See the critiques of these four scholars offered by Robinson, Weg des Herrn; Flender, Luke Theologian; Franklin, Christ the Lord; Kümmel, Accusations; Marshall, Luke; and Wilckens, Interpreting Acts. In conclusion, it would be unjust to fail to recognize the positive value of the work of Dibelius. His emphasis on Luke as an author with literary ambition, as a historian who is not concerned simply to chronicle a series of events but who wishes to commend the Word of God to his readers, and as a theologian who sees the hand of God at work in history in his own day—these have all been valid and have led to a very fruitful period of study of the Lucan writings. Gasque, Speeches, 

250

. Yet, as William Kurz rightly notes, these scholars’ recognition of the literary dimension of Luke’s work was made from within a historical-critical paradigm, not yet a truly literary or narrative one (Reading Luke-Acts, 

3

–

5

; so also Moyise, Intertextuality and Historical, 

24

,

32

).

24. Together with the five-volume series The Book of Acts in its First Century Setting (

1991

–

96

) and its companion Marshall and Peterson, Witness, from an evangelical perspective.

25. That paradigm shift in biblical studies started in the late

1970

s and early

1980

s, beginning with OT studies (see Alter, Art of Biblical Narrative; Sternberg, Poetics; Talbert, Shifting Sands; Kurz, Narrative Approaches; and Hatina and Kozowski, Introduction, 

1

–

12

). For a solid introduction to the insights and methodological explorations that have occupied researchers in the past two decades, see (in chronological order) Witherington, History Literature Society; Bartholomew et al., Reading Luke (the whole Scripture and Hermeneutics series is profitable for a perspective on current trends in broader biblical hermeneutics); Vanhoozer et al., Theological Interpretation; Hays et al., Reading the Bible Intertextually; Hatina, The Gospel of Luke; and Adams and Pahl, Issues. Surprisingly, the appropriation of modern linguistics in NT studies has been rather limited so far—in spite of Barr’s bombshell The Semantics of Biblical Language (

1961

) and the publication of a journal like Semeia—, except for a few scholars (e.g., Fanning, Porter, Carson, Silva and Poythress). There is a renewal of interest in the topic however, and a volume like Runge and Fresch, Greek Verb Revisited offers hope that we might see significant advances in the (near) future.

26. Though a variety of nineteenth century scholars saw in the Areopagitica a failure, typically explained by the fact that Paul sought to adjust the kerygma to his philosophical audience (in contrast with

1

Cor

2

:

1

–

2

), this theory is typically associated with the name of William Ramsay (and his apologetic book St. Paul; see Dibelius’ reproof in Areopagus, 

73

). This judgment, though proved to be erroneous many times (e.g., Hemer, Speeches II, 

258

), keeps on reappearing occasionally: see, e.g., Pervo, Profit, 

65

,

72

; Klauck, Magic and Paganism, 

74

; and the multiple references in Keener, Acts, 

3

.

2677

n

3791

.

27. Random examples include: Bossuyt and Radermakers, Rencontre; Charles, Engaging; Losie, Paul’s Speech; Flemming, Contextualization; Span, Areopagus; Mbuvi goes further than many would when he writes: "Paul’s assessment of the Athenian religion suggest a perspective that willfully engages the religious world and convictions of the other with the aim of mutual edification. Missionary Acts," 

153

(emphasis added).

28. E.g., self-professed evangelicals like Clark Pinnock and John E. Sanders depend heavily on Roman Catholic thinkers (like Schlette and Legrand) and the critical scholarship of Dibelius, Haenchen and Conzelmann. It seems that the fragmentation of the text produced by the latter’s exegetical methods comports well with the former’s method of arguing and theologizing (and conviction that the Bible includes truly diverse points of view). For a substantial study and sustained critique of Pinnock’s theology (the father of evangelical inclusivism), see Strange, Possibility of Salvation.

29. An eclectic approach is not sufficient, for it still applies itself to the text’s various elements in a disparate and disconnected (possibly haphazard and arbitrary) manner, pace Tannehill, Acts, 

4

and Given, Paul’s True Rhetoric,

43

–

44

. On the contrary, it is impossible for us to think in non-interdisciplinary ways. Rowe, World Upside Down,

8

. Our methodology, therefore, seeks to be integrative in a manner consistent with the redemptive-historical hermeneutical trajectory set by scholars such as G. Vos, H. Ridderbos, N. Stonehouse, R. Gaffin, M. Silva, and V. Poythress.

30. This is a methodological statement, not a judgment on the historicity of the story or the speech. The point is that the Areopagitica is Lukan in at least two crucial ways: first, we agree with the scholarly consensus that the speech in its current form is a summary reported by Luke, not Paul’s ipsissima verba (verbal overlap is not thereby a priori excluded); even more significantly, it is now an integral and organic part of Luke’s composition, serving his purposes and communicating his thought. That means that its primary interpretive context is Lukan (which is not necessarily true of its substance, but that is a second-order theological consideration); any other would be speculative or foreign. Our conviction is that