Political Communication in the Arabian Gulf Countries: The Relationship Between the Governments and the Press

By Adnan Jasim Bumetea

This book represents the first systematic study of aspects of political communication in the Arabian Gulf region, one of the most important areas in the Middle East. It explores the relationship between the governments and the press, first through an examination of international and national political news coverage in the Gulf press, and second through an analysis of factors influencing selection of these news stories. The research examines one principal Arabic-language newspaper from each of the six Arabian Gulf countries: Al-Ayam (Bahrain), Al-Rai Al-Aam (Kuwait), Oman (Oman), Al-Sharq (Qatar), Al-Riyadh (Saudi Arabia), and Al-Bayan (UAE).

The analysis shows a culturally specific pattern of media model, distinct from that in the West or other areas in the world. This pattern can be understood through three government-press models. First, the loyalist press model prevailing in Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the UAE, in which a high level of government influence is seen, and the press is supportive and in line of the government. Second, the diverse press model, which exists in Kuwait and is characterized by a press with relative freedom and diversity. Third, the transitional press model, which describes the condition in Bahrain manifested with a mixed system of governmental control and elements of press freedom.

As this pattern still exists, this book is important for decision makers, politicians, media communicators, research centers, journalism schools, media investors and newspapers industry to understand the media industry in this strategic area in the world.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris AU
• Release date: Jul 25, 2013
• ISBN: 9781483665399

Adnan Jasim Bumetea

Dr. Adnan Jasim BuMetea is one of the political communication expert in the Arabian Gulf region. He is an assistant Professor at Journalism and Mass Communication Department at the University of Bahrain and a senior lecturer at Bahrain Institute for Political Development presenting courses in political communication for leading politicians and candidates for election campaigns. Dr. Adnan is a research reviewer for Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) media studies and researches. Dr. BuMetea is a writer and journalist for more than 24 years. He writes a regular political column in many Arabian Gulf Countries newspapers. As a political analyst, Dr. Bumetea is hosted by many political TV show programs in the Arabian Gulf region standing as an expertise in the political scene of the Arabian Gulf and Middle East issues. He is editorial consultant for media companies and main speaker for a number of conferences, workshops and lectures. A member of Bahrain Journalist Society and Asian Society of Mass Media and journalism. Dr. Bumetea was born and grown up in Muharraq-the oldest city of Bahrain. He graduated from Imam Mohammed Bin Saud University in Saudi Arabia with a BS and Master Degree in Print Journalism. He graduated from University of Sheffield –UK with PhD as the first Bahraini holding highest degree in Political Communication.

Book preview

POLITICAL COMMUNICATION IN

THE ARABIAN GULF COUNTRIES

17606.jpg

The Relationship between the Governments and the Press

Adnan Jasim BuMetea

Copyright © 2013 by Adnan Jasim BuMetea.

ISBN:          Softcover                                 978-1-4836-6538-2

                   Ebook                                      978-1-4836-6539-9

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Rev. date: 07/08/2013

Book Cover Photo by Photographer Hasan Shams

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Contents

Dedication

Abstract

Acknowledgements

Chapter One       Introduction

Chapter Two       News, Politics and Power

Chapter Three       Understanding the Arabian Gulf

Chapter Four       Methodology

Chapter Five       National Political News in Gulf Press

Chapter Six       International Political News in Gulf Press

Chapter Seven       Deciding what Political News

Chapter Eight       Conclusions

Appendix 1       Sampled Issues of each Newspaper Selected

Appendix 2       Coding Book of Content Analysis

Appendix 3       Coding Frame of Content Analysis

Appendix 4       Editors-in-Chief Interviews

References

Endnotes

DEDICATION

To the memory of my father Jasim who passed away before this work was complete.

‘Oh son, carry on your studies, chances only come once. God bless you . . .’

ABSTRACT

This research represents the first systematic study of aspects of political communication in the countries of the Arabian Gulf, one of the most important regions of the world. It aims to explore the relationship between governments and the press, first through an examination of international and national political news coverage in the Gulf press, and second through an analysis of the factors influencing the selection of these news stories.

A combination of two research methods is used: content analysis, and interviews of editors-in-chief. The research examines one principal Arabic-language newspaper from each of the Gulf countries: Al-Ayam (Bahrain), Al-Rai Al-Aam (Kuwait), Oman (Oman), Al-Sharq (Qatar), Al-Riyadh (Saudi Arabia), and Al-Bayan (UAE).

The research shows that there is strong governmental influence on the Arabian Gulf press, though not always through direct means, and in varying degrees from country to country. The government ensures that the press presents its achievements and the activities of the head of state and its top officials, while the press depends on the government for survival, in terms of licensing and financial support, and as a source of information.

This research further illustrates that the relationship between governments and the press in the Arabian Gulf countries can be understood through three government-press models. First, the loyalist press model, in which a high level of government influence is seen, and the press is supportive and in line of the government. This model prevails in Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the UAE. Second, the diverse press model, which exists in Kuwait and is characterised by a press with relative freedom and diversity. Third, the transitional press model, which describes the condition in Bahrain manifested with a mixed system of governmental control and elements of press freedom.

This relationship is however more evident when national rather than international political news is analysed. Nevertheless, this research shows that in the most loyalist newspapers there is a large proportion of international political news, much of it is covering war and conflict, suggesting that the Arabian Gulf newspapers, despite the attempts at control from their governments, gravitate towards the same news values as in the western newspapers. On the other hand, the most liberal newspapers, such as those in Kuwait and Bahrain, cover more national than international news.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, my thanks and deep appreciation go to Almighty Allah, who enabled me to complete this research.

I would like to express my esteem, profound respect and deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Karen Sanders, for her sincere advice, suggestions, invaluable encouragement and guidance through my years of study. Her valuable academic comments were instrumental in my completing my work and improving its quality. Her experience and expertise were of great help in bringing this study up to this standard. I owe her so much more than these few words.

I wish to express thanks and appreciation to the University of Bahrain, which provided me with the scholarship to conduct this research. Special thanks are due to the former President of the University of Bahrain, Dr. Mohammed Bin Jasim Al-Gatam for his support and encouragement. My appreciation is also due to Dr. Mariam Bint Hassan Al-Khalifa, the President of the University of Bahrain, for her continuous support. My gratitude also goes to all the people in the University of Bahrain who have given me every assistance, cooperation and support to enable me to complete this research. Special thanks go to Dr. Alawi Al-Hashimi, and Dr. Mohammed Al-Sayed.

I would like to express my gratitude and thanks to the editors-in-chief and editors of the Gulf newspapers without whose cooperation and assistance this work would have not been completed: Mr. Issa Al-Shayjee (Al-Ayam, Bahrain), Mr. Jasim Budai and Mr. Yousif AL-Jalahima (Al-Rai Al-Aam, Kuwait), Mr. Ebrahim Al-Maameri and Mr. Awadh Bakhaweer (Oman, Oman), Mr. Abdulatif Al-Mahmood and Mr Jasim Safar (Al-Sharq, Qatar), Mr. Turki Al-Sudari and Dr. Abdulmohsin Al-Dawood (Al-Riyadh, Saudi Arabia), and Mr. Khalid Mohammed and Mr. Dhaen Al-Shaheen (Al-Bayan, UAE).

I am also grateful to the staff at the University of Sheffield, particularly at the Department of Journalism Studies, for their assistance.

I am very much grateful to Saniya, my wife, for her continuous support and sacrifice; without her encouragement, this research would not have been completed. I would also like to extend my thanks to my daughters Kawthar, Naela, Marwa and Maha for their patience and spiritual care, who made my stay in Sheffield pleasant and enjoyable.

My deepest thanks also go to my mother, Sheikha Bint Mohammed Al-Mahmeed, for her concern, patience and prayers throughout my years of study.

I wish to thank all my family, my brothers and sisters for their encouragement. Special thanks go to my father-in-law, Mr Abdulla Al-Salehi, and my mother in law, Mrs Fatima Al-Koheji, for their support and prayers.

I would like also to thank all friends who made my stay in the UK a pleasant experience.

Finally, I wish to thank everyone who gave help and assistance towards completing this research, particularly those whose comments and ideas contributed to enriching it.

For any errors and deficiencies, I solely take the blame and apologise.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1.   Statement of Problem

The Arabian Gulf states comprise Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. Although each has its own distinct cultural identity, they all share significant characteristics with each other. They are all Arabs and Muslim. The modern states are based on tribal society, they share similar political and socioeconomic structures, and their governments are monarchies and ruled by families. None of the countries in the Arabian Gulf allow political parties. In Kuwait and Bahrain, however, political groups exist, but with a limited role. Supported by strong revenues from oil and gas, the area has undergone great advances in its infrastructure.

Although the mass media have undergone substantial changes in their structure, they are mainly controlled by Gulf governments and follow their main policy and regulations. Radio and television broadcasting in the Gulf are owned, controlled and regulated by their governments. The majority of newspapers in the Gulf countries is privately owned, but are still dependent on their governments financially, and the newspapers in turn are in line with the government policies (Al-Rumaihi, 2001: 14; Amin, 2002; Rugh, 2004). Publication laws in the Gulf countries prohibit the press from criticising heads of state and government, members of the ruling families, top ministers, and Arab leaders, or states considered friendly to the Gulf countries (Hindi, 1999). Kuwait, among all the other Gulf countries, seems to allow more freedom of the press, reflected in its publication laws and the diversity of its press. Nevertheless, its broadcasting media are governmental monopolies.

Despite private ownership, a number of informed commentators suggest that the governments of the Gulf countries use the press to try to influence public opinion by publishing positive news about the political decisions and activities undertaken by senior government officials (Rugh, 2004: 65-70). The press renders a valuable service to the governments’ policies by presenting their news with no criticism.

However, there are no studies published that have examined the relationship between the content of political news and the assumption that Gulf newspapers are under government control. Rugh (2004) proposed models of media systems that describe the relationship between political systems and media systems in the Arab world, including Arabian Gulf countries. They may well be applicable here; they have, however, been based on observations and interviews with elite actors. Rashed’s (1995) study is the only one which has investigated the relationship between the political system and the media system in the Arabian Gulf through case studies. Her study is, however, limited to only one Gulf country (the UAE), and cannot be generalised to all.

1.3.   Research Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research is to examine systematically the relationship between the Arabian Gulf press and governments, considering this in the wider context of whether it constitutes a culturally specific pattern of political communication distinct from that in the west.

Political communication is any transmission of messages that has or is intended to have an effect on the distribution or use of power in society (Schudson, 1989: 304). Political communication in its simplest form is the relationship involving three important elements: political actors, media and audience (McNair, 1999: 5). Political actors who attempt to influence the decision-making process could be political parties, public organisations, pressure groups, or governments. Media act as the transmitter of the political message from political actors to the audience, or vice versa, in a democratic system. Audiences act as the receiver or the target of the whole political communication. This study examines political communication from one aspect, the relation between media (Gulf press) and the political actors (governments) in the Arabian Gulf countries.

The specific objectives of the study are: first, to examine national and international political news coverage in the Gulf press, and second, to analyse the factors influencing the selection of these news stories.

One of the messages transmitted by the Arabian Gulf press is political news. The press has been chosen as the medium to study this relationship because the print media, as argued by McCargo (2003: 2), are the first choice for the political elite, and although broadcasting is immediate, the print media can provide explicit and deeper analysis. Furthermore, all the broadcasting media are owned and regulated by the governments in the Arabian Gulf, while the majority of print media are privately owned and thought to have autonomy in news selection. Therefore, this study will explore the political content of the Arabian Gulf newspapers and show how politics is presented. Probably this study may be the first to present the nature of the media systems by studying the relationship between the government and the press by analysing political content of the daily newspapers, not only in one but in all six Gulf countries.

Shoemaker and Reese (1996: 27) stated that media content… is for the most part, open and accessible for study—the most obvious part of mass communication process—unlike the behind-the-scenes decisions made by producers, writers and editors and the behaviors of media consumers. Studying content can help to define the forces that could influence news content. Riffe et al. (1998: 8) stated that examining content after its production can be used to make inferences about the conditions of its production. It is however not enough to understand fully these forces or their nature. Thus, understanding the political content of the Arabian Gulf press will not be complete unless the process of news selection is also highlighted. News is thought to be the final product of a complex process of selection and processing, in which journalists’ individual characteristics, organisational routines and practices, media owners, audiences and advertisers interplay (Shoemaker and Reese, 1996: 1). Additionally, political and governmental influences, and ideological and cultural factors also act as forces influencing and shaping news. Furthermore, the process of news selection is also thought to follow a set of news criteria determined by the journalists or the media organisation to decide what is newsworthy (McQuail, 2005: 310).

1.3   Research Questions

From the research aim and objectives, for national political news, the following exploratory questions are raised on the basis that the press follows the governments’ agenda on national politics.

Q1:   Is political news a main topic of front page stories?

Q2:   What are the principal topics of national political news stories covered?

Q3:   What is the prominence given to national political figures?

Q4:   Which are the main sources for national political news?

For international political news, the following questions are raised, on the basis that under Gulf governments’ control, with limited press freedom, the coverage of international political news will show a distinct pattern:

Q5:   What is the amount and proportion of international political news in the Gulf newspapers studied?

Q6:   What is the geographical coverage of international political news stories?

Q7:   What countries are covered in the international political news?

Q8:   What are the principal topics of international political news covered in the Arabian Gulf newspapers?

Q9:   Who are the political figures featured on the international stage?

Q10:   What are the most important news sources of international political news?

For the explanation of relationship between the governments in the Gulf and their press through understanding the factors and the news values that determine political news selection in the Arabian Gulf press, one question is raised:

Q11:   What determines political news selection in the Gulf press?

Therefore, the statement of the problem satisfies the three criteria of a good problem statement that were suggested by Kerlinger and Lee (2000: 25): First, the problem should express the relation between one or two variables; second, it should be stated clearly and unambiguously in question form; and third to imply empirical testing.

1.4   Research Methods

To fulfil the aim and objectives, the research uses a mixed-methods design, combining quantitative and qualitative research methods. The quantitative method is the use of content analysis (what?). The research has included one newspaper from each of the Gulf countries: Al-Ayam (Bahrain), Al-Rai Al-Aam (Kuwait), Oman (Oman), Al-Sharq (Qatar), Al-Riyadh (Saudi Arabia), and Al-Bayan (UAE). The research made the use of systematic sampling in selecting the issues of these newspapers over a period of one year.

The qualitative method used is interviews with the editors in order to answer the question (why?). Selecting the elites for the interviews was based on convient sampling.

1.5   Research Contribution

This study intends to add an important dimension in political communication in the Arabian Gulf region by exploring the relation between the press and the governments in the region. Studying the content of political news and the factors that could influence the political news selection would enable us to draw some idea of the relation between the government and the press in the Arabian Gulf countries. Most of the studies which have investigated the relation between media and political systems are based upon Western countries and may be of little relevance to the Arabian Gulf countries, particularly when political systems in the Gulf are entirely different. Many of the arguments and theories proposed may not be applicable.

In the Arabian Gulf countries, a number of scholars have pointed out that political systems are characterised by being authoritarian, with tight control on the media, which are used as a propaganda tool (Amin, 2002). Rugh (2004) provided an overview of how the content in the Arabian Gulf press reflects the political system. However, until now, scholars have largely relied on impressionistic evidence in assessing media content in the Gulf. Rugh (2004: 250) stated that no objective and systematic content analysis studies have been done on Arab media. This research will be the first, based on content analysis, to fill in the gap in providing objective evidence of political news content in Gulf newspapers. During the past three decades, the Arabian Gulf witnessed profound political events such as the First (1979-1989) and Second (1990-1991) Gulf Wars, political reforms in Bahrain leading towards increased democracy (2001), and the occupation of Iraq (2003). Along with these changes, there have been advances in information and communication technology interplaying with the forces of globalisation that have been sweeping the fields of politics, economics and culture. These changes have provided the necessary impetus for opening up the media, and encouraging the free discussions of topics and issues that were once taboo. This may have as well changed tackling political news in the Arabian Gulf press. Despite these changes, political news in countries from the Arabian Gulf has not been examined as a single entity in any major study. No studies currently exist that have examined news or the factors that could influence the selection of political news in newspapers in the Arabian Gulf countries as a whole.

By exploring the factors that could influence this news selection, we will be able to understand how the process of selection is carried out, and how the governments may influence this process. This field of research has not been investigated in the Gulf, and the data available on news production are based on studies carried out in countries other than the Gulf. In the Gulf press, news selection may be influenced by different factors or may follow distinct selection criteria. In this study, the factors that could influence the political content of news are assessed based on interviews with the editors-in-chief, providing a broad picture and a framework for further studies in this field.

As this study will also explore international political news and how it is presented under such relations, it will also provide an up-to-date picture of international political news in the Gulf press. Sreberny and Paterson (2004: 17) argued that there have been significant geopolitical changes and technological advancement that have influenced news reporting internationally. There have been many dramatic political changes during the last decade both globally and regionally, following the attacks on 11 September 2001. Although there have been a number of studies that examined international news coverage in the Gulf media, the most recent study was done in 1995. Therefore, highlighting the international coverage of the six Arabian Gulf newspapers in this research will enable us to draw an up-to-date and comprehensive picture of the world, and to see if the same pattern still exists. It will eventually add to the field of international political communication and help in presenting a window on the world from the Arabian Gulf.

It is worth mentioning that all the data dealt with in this study were available in Arabic. The researcher’s first language is Arabic, he is from the Gulf area, and is an experienced journalist with a newspaper from the Arabian Gulf region.

1.6.   Organisation of Thesis

This thesis is divided into eight chapters. The first chapter is introductory information about the main purpose and the objectives of the study, and its importance. It also describes the statement of the problem and the framework of the study. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the organisation of the research chapters.

Chapter Two discusses the link between news, politics, and power. It starts with an overview of the theories and models analysing the relation between politics and media in the wider sense. From there, we will attempt to examine how governments can exert their influences on media focusing more on the press. The discussion begins with the question of what news is, and argues that it is the product of a complex process of particular interest in its relation to political power. The chapter also discusses the process of news production. It starts with an overview of the theories of news production, and then of the factors that could influence the content of news from within to the outside of the media organisation. The news production process raises the concept that news content is the final product of journalist selection criteria, organisational routines and practices, and political, ideological and cultural context, not the mirror of reality. Other factors that influence the content, such as different ownership, news sources and public relations, advertisers and audiences, are also discussed. Breifly, the concept of globalisation and its debates is also discussed. With this background, we will present how the relation between the government and the press would influence the political content of the press, focusing on national and international news content.

Chapter Three provides an overview of the Arabian Gulf countries. It presents briefly the historical, sociological and economic background, highlighting the political systems. The chapter also demonstrates how this background shapes the media in Arabian Gulf countries, and explains the media policy employed by respective governments in the region. The dynamics of technology, culture and globalisation in shaping the regional media landscape is also discussed.

Chapter Four examines the methods used to collect the data and the procedures followed to achieve this. It expands on definitions of content analysis, its advantages and disadvantages, sampling techniques, and coding systems used. The chapter also presents the strengths and the weaknesses of the interviews with the editors-in-chief.

Chapters Five, Six, and Seven report the findings of the study, presenting the results of the content analysis and the interviews with the editors-in-chief.

Chapter Five will be organised around the results of content analysis of national political news. The main focus is to answer the questions raised about the amount, topics and news sources of national political news and national political figures, in order to see if the newspapers studied follow the government agenda on national politics.

Chapter Six will discuss the findings of content analysis of the international political news, answering questions about geographical coverage, political figures and topics and sources of that news. This chapter attempts to test if international political coverage under the control of Gulf governments would show a distinct pattern.

Chapter Seven is organised around the ideas, opinions and comments of editors-in-chief of the six Arabian Gulf countries’ newspapers, exploring news values or news criteria and factors that could affect political news selection. This chapter aims at testing how the governments in the Gulf exert their influences on the press.

Chapter Eight presents conclusions, limitations of the research, and recommendations for further studies.

CHAPTER TWO

NEWS, POLITICS AND POWER

2.1   Introduction

Although news tells us about contemporary events, and helps us make sense of things happening around us, it can be used by social, economic and political powers, shaping the way we see the world and perceive reality. Mowlana (1996: 81) argues that communication as a whole can be viewed as an intangible means to impose power.

News is in a state of continuing change; its definition and its content are always changing. What is news? Is it a mirror reflecting the reality or is it a construction? If it is constructed, then how is it constructed to take the shape of the political, social and economic environments? What is the link between news, politics and power? What part has news played in the political process? And how has it been studied?

In this chapter we will examine these questions and present a framework for thinking about political news in relation to political power as employed by the government. The relationship between media and politics is very different from one society to another, from one culture to another, and from one political system to another. Elements of political or media systems also interact with social, technological and economic factors.

In order to grasp the relationship between governments and press, it is important to review theories and models analysing the relation between politics and media in the wider sense. From there, we will attempt to present how governments can exert their influence on media, focusing on the press. Of particular importance to this discussion is to investigate how this relationship might influence the political content of the press. Most studies investigating media and politics are based upon Western countries (McCargo, 2003: 1), and their relevance to Arabian Gulf countries needs to be assessed, particularly given the very different political systems prevalent in the Gulf. However, one of the aims of this study is to explore the specific kind of political communication environment which exists in the Gulf States. We will demonstrate how the content of national political news may be influenced by the relation between political and media systems. We will also show the factors that could determine news content. Shoemaker and Reese (1996: 1) indicated that news content is the final product of organisational routines, practices, and political, ideological and cultural context, not a mirror of reality. Other factors may influence the content, such as different ownership, and political pressure. Also media content cannot be isolated from the dominant ideology and culture prevailing in the society.

Therefore this chapter will focus on news, political news, and the influence of the political system on media performance, through studying news. This chapter will also describe the process of news production, from the time an event is noticed until it is published, starting from selecting an item as news and processing it to its final shape. Beside this, all the factors or elements that may influence the news are identified, starting from various influences in the news organisation itself to numerous factors outside the organisation, including governmental influences. By doing this, we will have a wider view of the factors that may influence news selection in the Arabian Gulf press. The aim is to understand why the content of the political news in the Gulf press is produced in the way it is.

The understanding of the influence on content will not be completed without the provision of an overview of the relation between political systems and media systems.

2.2 Media Systems and Political Systems

In this section, we will explain and explore communication theories and models which analyse and draw up the linkage between the press and politics. It will allow an understanding of how politics is incorporated into media, and how the political system in power interacts with the media. This provides a background to recognise what sort of relation exists between governments and the print media in the Gulf region.

The link between the political systems and the media systems is highly complex (Franklin, 1994: 39; McQuail, 2005: 241), even in democratic societies in which it is claimed that the media are politically independent. Many studies have investigated this relationship and proposed models describing the linkage. In general, these models depend on a number of variables that shape the relation between the media and the political system. These variables could be grouped under those related to the political system and its media policy and regulations, to economic variables, to the journalistic profession, and to the prevailing social environment.

Siebert, Paterson and Schramm (1956: 1) are among the pioneers in this research, in their formulation of their four theories of the press. They indicated that the press always takes on the form and coloration of the social and political structures within which it operates. They emphasised the significant role of the social system in which the press functions and its inter-related elements, the nature of the man, the nature of the society and the state, the relation of man to the state and the nature of knowledge and truth (Siebert et al., 1956: 1). Although these theories have been postulated in the Cold War period and many changes have occurred since the collapse of the Soviet Union, they are still relevant to the political systems and media systems in the Gulf.

The four theories of the press are the authoritarian theory, the Soviet communist theory, libertarian theory, and social responsibility theory. The authoritarian theory of the press is based on the assumption that the control of the press is in the hands of the most powerful figures in the