The Foundation of Heaven

By D. H. C. Carter

The Foundation of Heaven is a historical fictional work about the fall of the Aztec empire (old Mexico). Using his familiar style of mixing historical narrative with literary fiction, author D.H.C. Carter takes us into the world of the early 16th century and shows the collision of cultures that takes place between the old world and the new. Historic figures such as Cortez and Montezuma are brought into focus and their relationship is explored. Once again, Carter uses fictional characters to bring this story to life, leading the reader through the treacherous turns of the story of Spain's conquest of old Mexico.

• Language: English
• Publisher: AuthorHouse
• Release date: Apr 15, 2011
• ISBN: 9781456752705

D. H. C. Carter

Author D. H. C. Carter (David H. C. Carter) is a native of Richmond, Virginia, where he currently resides. He has been writing for fourteen years, and The Learning Curve is his sixth work. He graduated from Richmond Community High School for the gifted and talented in 1991 and studied at Hampton University as an undergraduate. His previous works—For God and Country, Seven Chiefs, The Boar and The Leopard, The Foundation of Heaven, and Paint It Black—are available online.

Book preview

1

Who could conquer Tenochtitlan?

Who could shake the foundation of heaven…?

-from an Aztec poem

Never before had Plaxetotl seen a day such as this. Quetzalcoatl (god) had been kind. The sun shone high in the sky, bereft of any clouds, on the beautiful city of Tenochtitlan, center of the Aztec empire. He (Plaxetotl) was a handsome man, about 5’9" in height, with a medium, muscular build, and close cropped hair of the Aztec Indian style. He stood near the edge of the city, on a small grassy rise, and watched the heavens rain down their glory.

Plaxetotl was somewhat of a philosopher (in Western terms). He, also, possessed the gifts of fortune-telling, healing, and dream interpretation, usually referred to as a divine by his people, separate from the priests. On this day, much like others, he had the fortune of possessing plenty of free time to devote to his discipline, hoping to gain mastery over himself and to teach others to see things beyond their world.

The city of Tenochtitlan was a magnificent construction. When discovered by the West, it was marveled at. It stood on an island, 7,000 feet in the air, on the edge of a great lake, nestled in a wide valley, surrounded by majestic mountains. The Westerners compared it to Venice, with it’s long history of construction. The island it had been built on was extended with stakes, mud and rocks. It contained lavish palaces, well built homes, of adobe, and a system of commerce.

Like Venice, there were canals that ran through the city. In the center was a holy district, surrounded by walls where several pyramids stood. On top of them were temples where the priests carried out rites. Streets and canals ran from the district, in alignment with the compass, and the Emperor’s palace was located nearby.

Plaxetotl was a man about the city, at times. When he wasn’t with his teachers and peers, he would walk the streets giving insight to various problems. This day, he decided to head to the market to get some fruits for his fellow journeymen, who were gathered in a small hut on the banks of the lake, just outside of the city.

The gathering of men, in his circle, would usually spend their days much like he, freely: helping others, debating and searching for spiritual insight. They enjoyed the simple things of life. They would drink pulque, an alcoholic beverage, smoke tobacco and eat mushrooms, all to loosen inhibitions. Also, mushrooms with honey were consumed (the flesh of the gods), the seeds of the morning glory and peyote, a stimulant. With these vices, they would place themselves in a higher state of ecstasy, and from there they could find answers to problems and see things others, normally, could not.

As he walked the streets of Tenochtitlan, Plaxetotl studied the looks on the faces of its inhabitants. He and his group were often misunderstood by those of the working class. Since they had no official designation, like the priests, merchants and ruling class, they were often confused with magicians and sorcerers or seen as bums. Most of the help that they gave was received by those whose problems had the potential of giving them a greater understanding of life, and they were always pleased give.

Tenochtitlan, and the empire of the Aztecs, also known as the Mexica, had undergone many changes in its 300 year history. About 1250, they arrived from the north, in search of better lands. Around 1345, they began to build Tenochtitlan (place of the fruit of the cactus) at a place where legend stated an eagle sat on a cactus. There were many other peoples living around Tenochtitlan, at the time. Many retained their independence up until the present time, others were conquered by the empire, and made to pay tribute to its Kings.

Two cities, Tacuba and Texcoco, were situated on opposite sides of the lake. They had been in alliance with Tenochtitlan for 90 years, now. Texcoco was known for its culture. There, they spoke an elegant form of Nahuatl, the Aztec language. Tacuba was much smaller. The two cities obeyed the Aztec Emperor in war, but were, otherwise, independent. The royal lineage of both cities was linked with Tenochtitlan. Long before the Aztec’s current wealth, the King had little to eat. Now, his heir ate off a hundred dishes. Before conquering the Tepanecs (their former rulers), they paid tribute to them. Now, they received tribute from other cities.

Plaxetotl understood the importance of his peoples’ history. They had struggled to make the gains they now enjoyed. The long years of warfare and tribulation had led to a golden age, and now they stood on the brink of forever.

Or so it seemed. Plaxetotl had heard rumors, as had others, of mysterious, bearded, white travelers on the shore and on the islands far off to the east. He had yet to verify these stories, but based on his own divinations, and those of others, he came to believe they were true. The Mexica believed in an eventual cataclysm. They divided their history into four eras, marked by four separate suns. They were now in the fifth era, and that was soon to come to an end.

The upper class seemed pessimistic. They were wealthy and powerful. However, these material claims did not prevent the fact that their culture was made up of divine beliefs, and, that with that, came the possibility of divine calamity.

Could these strange, white men be the forerunners to this disaster? The answer to this question laid not in the physical, to Plaxetotl. It would take some more time, and insight, to discover the true meaning of these reports. If true, they would mean a lot to those who studied the divine calendars, himself included, and those in power.

The Mexica relied on two calendars for continuity: the tonalpohualli and the xuihphohualli. The former had in it 260 days, and twenty thirteen-day weeks. Each day had a name, and told something of those who were born on them. The latter held the solar year, made up of 360 days and eighteen months. The extra five days were considered useless fillings.

Plaxetotl and his peers studied these calendars and interpreted them. They would give names to some of the newborns, and predict their courses in life. For example, 4-Dog was a good day to be born, 9-Wind would be bad. With these calendars, a good time to start a journey, go to war or begin to harvest could be predicted. After 52 years, a new century would begin. It would be celebrated with a ceremony called the binding of the years. The most recent one had been held in 1507.

The Emperor of Tenochtitlan was Montezuma II. He was the son of Axayácatl, who died in 1481. He followed his uncle in succession, who died in 1502. The successor was chosen by a form of electoral college, made up of about thirty lords, along with the Kings of Texcoco and Tacuba. However, no succession had been challenged. A form of this method can still be seen in Mexico today.

The last three emperors had suffered odd deaths: Ahuítzotl died, running from flood waters, receiving a blow to the head; Tizoc was killed by witches, it was rumored; and Axayátal died after he had been defeated in battle.

The Mexican emperor was the face of the empire. Internal affairs were directed by, the cihuacoatl, a cousin. He shared this responsibility with a great goddess, woman snake. Along with the election of a leader came the nomination of four officials who would be in place for succession to the throne. These men would hold titles such as, Killer of Men, and Keeper of the House of Darkness.

The Emperor was a semi-divine figure. The priests looked up to him. In their early years, Montezuma II and Ahuítzotl were high priests. Mexico was no theocracy, but religion did govern everything. Every house had a shrine to a god or goddess. The priests served maybe 200 major deities, 1,600 in all. Figures that represented the gods could be seen everywhere. However, the leading deities, Huitzilopochtli, Tezcatlipoca, Tlaloc (the rain god), and Quetzacoatl, really ruled Azteca.

To some, the roles of the gods may seem ambiguous. Ometeotl, the mother-father deity, of positivity and negativity, was credited with the creation of sun, fire, water, and what lay beyond the heavens, while four other deities were given this same distinction. The gods were not just representatives of certain functions but were those functions themselves. The poet-king of Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl, and others, even possessed the idea of a single god: My house is hung with pictures, So is yours, one and only God,

Nezahualcoyotl also wrote of the god Tezcatlipoca, smoking mirror, O lord, lord of the night, lord of the near, the night and the wind. The Mexica did believed in a supreme supernatural force - the Lord of Duality, Ometecuhtli, and Omecihuatl, his female companion, were seen as the ancestors of the gods.

Montezuma II, he who angers himself, was the fifth ruler of the Aztecs since their breakaway from Tepanec subjection, and the eight since the establishment of the royal house in the fourteenth century. He was crowned, in 1502, and was now about 50 years old. He was called Montezuma Xocoyotzin, the Younger", in reference to his great-grandfather, Montezuma I.

He was dark, and of medium height, with wavy hair and a hooked nose. His head was large, and his nostrils flat, though he was well proportioned. He spoke well, and was wise and prudent. He was thought of as the most eloquent ruler, by his people. When he spoke, he drew the sympathy of others by his subtle phrases and seduced them by his profound reasoning…

He spent most of his days in consultation. His palace would be crammed with people. When they got a chance to speak to him, the people spoke softly and did not raise their eyes. He would answer them in a low voice. He was greeted enthusiastically by his subjects. None of his predecessors attained a fourth part of his majesty.

Before Montezuma ascended to the throne he was also a successful general. He was known for being inflexible. He had seven judges killed. He ruled with fear, not affection. These were things for Plaxetotl to consider, as he passed near the palace on his way to the marketplace. He had never seen the King face-to-face, but all knew of his strong presence in the city.

The marketplace offered a cornucopia of foods to dine on. Plaxetotl had his choice of maize, beans, chili peppers, squash, and many other foods. He would select some cacti, for making pulque, the sap being essential, and various vegetables to place into the tortillas he would buy. He also purchased some fruits for his fellowship, and they would fish on the lakeshore for more sustenance.

The group was largely vegetarian, although they did feast on a few meats for entertainment. Maize (corn) was king in Azteca. It could be grown at all heights. It was essential in making tortillas, a favorite meal. The abundance of the marketplace was due largely to the success of commerce, and merchants who traveled near and far to bring their customers the best.

The wealth of the marketplace was a testament to the wealth of the nation. Long before, the Mexica wore clothes of maguey fiber. Now, the upper class wore robes made of long quetzal feathers, and elaborate cloaks made of white duck ones. Their skirts were embroidered, and they wore necklaces with pendants, and objects of greenstone (chalchihuite) which, to them, was more precious than gold.

Before, they subleased an aqueduct from the Tepanecs. Now, they owned their own, of stone. It had two channels, to allow for cleaning. They learned from the Totonacs and Huaxtecs, and made sculptures of rock, instead of terra-cotta. Excluding Naples and Constantinople, they had made a city bigger than any in Europe.

There was little crime in Tenochtitlan. Strict judges oversaw officials who maintained order. Their (the judges,) messenger service was of the greatest speed, whether it was by day or night, traveling through rain, snow or hail. The Emperor or the cihuacoatl would judge certain cases. Noblemen were not shown favoritism by law. It was more of the reverse. Monarchs held their own families accountable to the law. If offenders were not brought before the law within a certain time those who were victimized would have to pay their price.

Most punishments were given in public. The death penalty existed for almost every felony (in modern society). Naughty children were severely punished. Except for certain festivals, the young and the ordinary workers were not allowed to drink alcohol. This was punishable by death for the second offense.

There was a clear distinction between good and bad, in old Mexico. The Florentine Codex (a description of life in old Mexico) tells of how a good and bad father and mother would behave, as well as uncles, cousins etc. Good and bad magistrates were told of too. A bad magistrate would be a shower of favour, a hater of people, an establisher of unjust ordinances, an accepter of bribes, an issuer of corrupt pronouncements, a doer of favours, for example.

Stability was maintained with children following their fathers’ professions. Most Mexicans were obedient. There was no poverty. The streets were clean, and the houses were spotless. Women wove cloths, and took care of the family. Very few existed out of the norms. if the King tells the people to go into the forest to die there, they do. - The German newssheet, Nuewe Zeitung von dem Lande das die Spanien funden, 1521. the nation had a special steward for every activity. Everything was so well recorded that nothing was left out of the accounts. There were even officials in charge of sweeping.

Women stood comparable to those of Europe. They could own property, and had protection under the law. They played a role in commerce, and could become priestesses. Men’s right to office was affected by their mothers’ and wives’ status, as in Europe. Offices were sometimes passed through a daughter’s son, and sometimes a woman would hold one. However, daughters were given away as presents: when your parents give you a husband, do not be disrespectful to him… obey him. Monogamy was normal in the early days of the Mexica, but by the 16th century, the rulers had concubines. A queen was had as well.

Plaxetotl, himself, was a man on a quest, in matters of the heart, especially those that pertained to women. There was one that he had his eyes on, however, she was a cousin to the King, and he knew that that would be a difficult course to pursue. The fellowship of divines were open to all experiences, and this made them seem dangerous to many. They weren’t the only such fellowship that existed, and other groups, and some lone seekers of wisdom were prevalent in the society.

Tenochtitlan, internally, was made up of an interlocking network of capullitin - self-governing units. Their members did not own the land, and probably belonged to linked extended families. In many calpultin, families shared the same professions.

The calpultin had their own cultures. Marriage outside of the calpulli was unusual. The calpulli mobilized the Mexica in war, for street cleaning and to attend festivals. Farmers gave a portion of their crops to the calpulli to give to the imperial administration. Orders from the Emperor were given to the farmer through the calpulli. As many as eighty of them existed in Tenochtitlan. The leader, the capullec, had been elected, but now he held a hereditary and lifelong position.

In the suburb of Cueopan, the most powerful calpulli existed. That’s where the long-distance merchants lived, the pochteca. They had a bad name with the Mexica: the greedy, the well-fed, the covetous, the niggardly… who coveted wealth. However, officially, they were praised: men who, leading the caravans of bearers, made the Mexican state great. They were very secretive, being the object of envy, and served the Aztecs as spies.

The merchants imported raw materials to Tenochtitlan and luxury goods. They mostly exchanged manufactured objects in return for raw materials. They lived without ostentation, were badly dressed and their hair was worn down to their waists. They had many possessions, however, and the Emperor referred to them as his uncles. Sometimes, their daughters were the concubines of the monarchs.

But the soldiers had won the supremacy in Azteca. They were well organized and numerous. Boys were trained from birth for the military, like the Spartans and Prussians. The midwife would take the newborn from the mother and announce he belongs to the battlefield, there in the centre, in the middle of the plains…War is thy desert, thy task… perhaps thou wilt receive the gift… [of] the flowered death by the obsidian knife.

The soldiers’ weapons were the bow and arrow, sling, the stone-headed wooden spear, club, and the macuauhuitl (a black obsidian sword, with two edges, set in oak.). The sign of the government was a bow and arrow, round shield, and throwing stick. If one did not participate in war he lost his status. A Spanish chronicler said of the Azteca, he who does not go to war will not consort with the brave.

Plaxetotl purchased his produce with a feather quill of gold dust. The Mexica used this, cocoa beans and cloaks, for currency. Copper axes and canoes were also used, sometimes. They existed largely on the barter system, however. Markets were located in all of the districts. The largest one was in the city of Tlatelocolco. It was the biggest in all of the Americas. Every household had a product, and marketing it was its main activity. Members of the working class were called macehuatlin.

Plaxetolt had left his family sometime ago. He loved them. However, when he realized his path would be different, he left home. They were craftsmen, and made everything from statuettes to bowls. Before he left the city, he decided to visit them. They lived three districts up from the marketplace.

On his way, he passed by the zoo, where all types of exotic animals indigenous to the area were kept. Eyeing a former neighbor of his on his way to the market, he stopped and said, Hello. Annapoltet was his name. Like Plaxetotl’s family, Annapoltet’s were craftsmen.

Hello, he replied, happy that he was recognized.

I’m on my way to see my family, Plaxetolt volunteered. Are they home?

Yes, Annapoltet answered, a smile on his face. He had been a favorite neighbor of Plaxetotl when he was younger and he was glad to see him again. Your mother is there with your youngest brother, he continued.

Thank you, Plaxetotl responded, and continued on.

He knew he might be spending more time there, with his youngest brother at home. He had three of them, and was the oldest of the middle two. His next-to-youngest- brother had done much as he, and followed a different course, into military service. He had been born on 1-Jaguar (Ocelotl), and it was believed he would best serve the empire as a soldier. His older and youngest brothers were craftsmen, like their father.

His father was Oaxtepec, a stern, hardworking man, who believed in duty and tradition. It took a lot of coaxing from his wife Yecapxtla to allow his third born son to live a life of military service, but somewhere in his heart he knew that tradition was secondary to divine interpretation. How he (Plaxetotl) was allowed to leave home with such ease was a mystery to him.

As he neared the doorway of his quaint, white walled, adobe home, he started to wonder what he might say to his mother. He and his father did not talk much when he got older, so he didn’t think much about that with him, but his mother was more of the obvious threat in his household. What she said went, and he didn’t want any arguments that day. However, deep down inside, he hoped she would understand, and like with his brother, have pride and faith in his path.

Coatepec, his brother, was a handsome, young man, about 6’ in height. He was very tall, for an Aztec Indian. Plaxetotl, himself, was 5’ 9, and had not seen his brother in some time, leaving home at such an early age in his brother’s life. As he approached the door, he was surprised by his brother, who happened to be exiting. Do I know you?, he asked, jokingly. His brother did not respond. Just kidding," he added, hoping to calm the situation. And he did.

Welcome home. His brother said, lovingly, and the two embraced.

Where is Zuatla? Plaxetotl said, referring to his older brother.

He is with papa, at a meeting with the capullec, Coatepec answered. When a look of concern came over Plaxetotl’s face, his brother explained, It is nothing more than an accounting clear up.

Plaxetotl knew there was probably more to this, but did not pry any further. The affairs of the workers and the calpullec were always intense in this district, as the demand for its works was always high, due to beauty of the crafts. Each family put time and effort into what they produced, making some of the highest quality goods in the region. They were wanted all around.

So as not to make his brother feel uncherished, he asked him of his own affairs and how he was making out. The monotone reply confirmed his thoughts about the family way of life, and worker life in general. Enough conversation let him realize this even more, and he approached his mother who seemed to be resting on a beautifully designed mat in the corner of the house.

Nudging her slightly, Mother I’m home, he said, very courteously.

For how long, she replied, sarcastically, causing him to cringe a bit.

Long enough to keep my wits, he responded, laughing a little.

He had always been a little suspicious of his family, knowing inside he was different. He knew their views were shaped largely by the economic system, and that they could always use his help in production. However, he knew he had to heed his heart’s call also, and that meant his departure from them, though he loved them dearly.

His conversation with his mother was interrupted by the return of his father and older brother. Surprised to see him, they gasped at the sight of him.

His father was in his early forties. He was a stern looking man, with a bald head, a bit unusual for the Aztecs. He had three wrinkles which etched his forehead, that were more prominent in moments of astonishment. His high cheekbones led to diagonal lines that ran down the sides of his face, pointing to his mouth, highlighting his chiseled looks.

Hello, he said to his to his wayward son, with a hint of sarcasm.

Plaxetotl returned the greeting. Hello father. Their reunion was somewhat strained.

His brother, Zualta, was taller than he. His hair was worn in the traditional fashion also, short and close cropped. He had a muscular build, as well, and was very attractive. He greeted his younger brother with a hug, while their father looked on, closely.

Good to see you again. Zualta said, holding his brother’s shoulders, and looking down upon his face.

The warmth the brothers shared far surpassed any hostilities between them and their parents, and just watching them together gave their parents some measure of joy.

The brief moment of comfort departed a bit as they thought of, Tetzuahtl, their missing family member, in military service.

How is Tetzuahtl doing? Plaxetotl asked, speaking through the silence. His question was more meant to break the silence than inquire about information. He had spoken with his brother not too long ago, and would visit him, now and then, while away on his spiritual journeys. The family wasn’t too aware of this, due to the closeness the two middle children shared.

He’s doing fine. His father responded, reinforcing the security of the Mexica’s social order. His older brother would elaborate more, later on, as if to translate his father’s meaning.

The reunion lasted long into the day. The family ate and reminisced. Some time afterwards Plaxetotl reluctantly inquired about the meeting with the capullec.

How are the business affairs father? He asked, with a look of boyhood innocence. As reluctant as his asking was his father’s response. He did not like to go into details about the business, especially when one who was not participating was involved.

Things are going well. He answered, almost as vaguely as he responded to Plaxetotl’s earlier question about his brother. However, he knew his second born son was extremely intelligent so he elaborated further. "Goods being brought in by the pochteca are flooding the marketplace and decreasing the sale of our goods. We are being pressured to lower prices,"

It was a confession Plaxetotl longed to hear, and for a second he thought maybe he could be of some more use to his family.

Those thoughts were ended by his father’s next words, but we’ve got things under control and are looking at ending the strain.

Dejected, somewhat, Plaxetotl diffused the situation with, Okay. His father smiled.

Once again, he hoped his older brother would lend him more information on the subject.

As nightfall approached, he gathered his goods from the marketplace, kissed his mother, hugged his brothers, and said his good-byes. He didn’t know when he would return, but hoped one day he could be of more help to them, if they let him. He left the house, and headed to the gathering of his peers on the lakeside, crossing the Tacuba Causeway that bridged the lake.

2

Half a world away, in the province of Andalusia, in the city of Córdoba, Spain, Juan Miguel Martínez steadied his sword, making a straight line towards his opponent. His left hand was held up in the air, in the traditional pose of a fencer. He glared into the eyes of his adversary, probing for any signs of weakness.

As he searched, his foe lunged forward, seeking some element of surprise. His thrust was thwarted with a deflecting block by Juan, who countered with a stab at his attacker’s right shoulder. The parry-and-counter-thrust ended the contest, leaving the wounded man clutching his upper body and screaming in agonizing pain.

At this point Juan Miguel chose not to finish off his opponent, as was customary in a duel, rather he sheathed his sixteenth century weapon and walked away, every few paces, glancing behind himself to check for any attempts at revenge.

Such was the way of life, for a young man, as him, in sixteenth century Spain, filled with rivalries and feuds. Far from a commoner, he was born into a family of privilege. His mother was a Lady-in-Waiting to the former Queen of Spain, Isabel, and his father was a slave trader.

He was 5’, 11" in height, with a thin brown beard, and sharp, narrow nose. His eyes were auburn, which matched his beard and brown hair rather nicely. The ladies considered him very handsome, and for this compliment they certainly paid.

He was known as a womanizer, a term not common in that day. The allowances given to him by his father allowed him to travel widely across the country and abroad. He had been to the north coast of Africa, with his father, and witnessed first hand his dealings with slave merchants and slaves.

The trade had taught him the cruelties of life, and he hardened himself to them. He was often cold in his dealings with other people, and didn’t have many close friends. His closest was Don Eduardo Herrera, a playboy, like himself, and adventurer, who had traveled to the New World before, and returned to tell grandiose tales of his experiences there.

Don Eduardo, too, was a man of privilege. He had been born a noble, in a powerful family that ruled Córdoba. Many of the feuds and disputes Juan found himself in were a result of his friendship with him. A rival family, the Valencias, often clashed with the Herreras, causing most of the violence in the city. Usually the matters were political, in Juan’s case, in this matter, it was over a woman, Maríanella Dominíc Españoza, a local girl who had captured the hearts of both Juan and his rival.

To Juan the matter was settled the minute he’d made love to her. Not one to fall in love so easily, he had had is eye on many of the women of the city, as well as elsewhere. But, in this matter, the scorned Francisco Denardo felt as if her honor had been taken away from her by the carefree philanderer, and he was determined to get some measure of justice, for her, as well as himself, being that he loved her so much.

Don Eduardo, also a good looking man, with long blonde hair, and a clean shaven face, made no attempt to stop his friend from entering the duel, content to see one of his, and his family’s, enemies fall. Standing off to the side, he watched the contest with a smile of satisfaction on his face, and a hint of confidence in his eyes for his buddy.

When it was over he joined Juan, and they walked back to their horses, taunting his stricken opponent all the way, Don’t fool around with my family or my friends, ever again!

The wounded Francisco scowled at him with a menacing look, ignoring his excruciating pain. The two stared him down as they rode off, Eduardo advising his friend that Francisco would not try anything, when he noticed his hesitation.

Columbus’ discovery in America, near the turn of the century, and the subsequent expeditions to the New World had changed the dynamic of life in Córdoba, as well as the rest of the country. Idle men, such as Juan Miguel and Don Eduardo, who had missed the wars of their fathers generation, against the Moors, and for Granada, could now look overseas for their opportunity to contribute to society, and quench their adventurous thirsts.

For some time, Eduardo had been trying to convince Juan to go with him on another voyage to the new continents, and after this latest affair, he thought he just might.

The conquistadors (Spanish explorers) were from all parts of Spain: the provinces of Andalusia, Old Castile and Extremadura, in cities like: Córdoba, Badajoz, Salamanca, Medellíin, and Seville. Their leaders were hidalgos, men of minor nobility, not reared from behind the plough. Many were younger sons who, because of the size their families, were forced to look for work, in the church, sea or court, to live. They had several motives: riches, fame and power.

Other volunteers joined in exploration, due to increases in sheep rearing, cattle farming and a decline in agricultural acres. Also, between 1502 and 1508, Spain underwent an economic crisis. The poverty is great, - Guicciardini, Italian historian and diplomat. Hunger and disease are never wanting, - Diego de Ordaz, conquistador.

The people had a desire for freedom from obligations. Lords, bishops and the military had had too much of a hold on them. When an old man was asked why he was emigrating to the New World he answered, By my faith, sir, to die and leave my sons in a free and happy land.

Long before Don Eduardo traveled to the West Indies, Juan Miguel fancied