Italy: From Subjugation to Independence

By Avis Pightling

Enter a world of cloak-and-dagger intrigue and military rivalry, secret societies and revolution!

The story opens with the rise and fall of the glorious Roman Empire, to be followed by the unceasing wave of invasions, in particular France, Spain and Austria. The rising city communes transform into powerful and wealthy city-states which, against the background of the flowering Renaissance, begin to resist foreign interlopers, whilst the Papacy vies with the Habsburg emperors for control of the Peninsula.

The scene shifts to the Age of Enlightenment which not only kick-starts the foundations of the Italian economy, but also motivates the quest for independence. Masterminded by the revolutionary Mazzini, revolts snowball. Cavour’s international wheeler-dealings are followed by Garibaldi’s clinching victory over the Austrians at Volturno in 1860, by which he presents half of Italy to his king, Vittorio Emanuele II. The creation of a united and independent Italy is, at last, achieved.

A ‘must’ for invaluable reading for those who seek a deeper understanding of Italy and the Italians.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Austin Macauley
• Release date: Jun 19, 2018
• ISBN: 9780463168097

Avis Pightling

A linguist by profession, Avis Pightling lived in Italy for several years and now resides in the Chilterns. She has written a study of the European Union. Her interests include history, music, dance, gardening and the countryside.

Book preview

About the Author

A linguist by profession, Avis Pightling lived in Italy for some years and now resides in the Chilterns. She has written a book on the European Union: its history, institutions and the Eurozone crisis. Her interests include history, dance, music, gardening and the countryside.

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Italy: From Subjugation to Independence

Published by Austin Macauley at Smashwords

Copyright 2018, Avis Pightling

The right of Avis Pightling Irving to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with section 77 and 78 of the

Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All Rights Reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with the written permission of the publisher, or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended). Any person who commits any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

Smashwords Edition, License Notes

This ebook is licensed for your personal enjoyment only. This ebook may not be re-sold or given away to other people. If you would like to share this book with another person, please purchase an additional copy for each recipient. If you’re reading this book and did not purchase it, or it was not purchased for your use only, then please return to Smashwords.com and purchase your own copy. Thank you for respecting the hard work of this author.

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A CIP catalogue record for this title is

Available from the British Library.

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www.austinmacauley.com

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Italy: From Subjugation to Independence, 2018

Austin Macauley Publishers Ltd.

ISBN 978-1-78710-485-3 (Paperback)

ISBN 978-1-78710-486-0 (Hardback)

ISBN 978-1-78710-487-7 (Kindle E-Book)

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First Published in 2018

Austin Macauley Publishers.LTD/

CGC-33-01, 25 Canada Square

Canary Wharf, London E14 5LQ

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Contents

Introduction

Part One:-Invasion and Subjugation

Chapter One:-Setting the Scene: Indigenous Peoples Early Invaders

Chapter 2:-The Rise of the Roman Empire

Chapter 3:-The Rise of the Papacy

Chapter 4:-The Era of Invasions

Chapter 5:-The Rise of the Autonomous Communes

Chapter 6:-Era of Imperial-Papal Conflict

Chapter 7: Growing Strength of the City-States

Chapter 8:-Spanish Domination 1521–1713

Chapter 9: Franco-Spanish Conflict in the Peninsula

Chapter 10: Enlightenment and Reform in the Eighteenth Century

Chapter 11: The Last French Invasion: Napoleon Bonaparte

Part Two: Il Risorgimento: The Path to Independence

Chapter 12:-The Search for a Model

Chapter 13:- The Final Conqueror: Austria

Chapter 14:-Outbreaks of Revolt; Mazzini

Chapter 15:-1848-9: The Third Wave of Revolts and First War of Independence

Chapter 16: Cavour; Mazzini’s Last Stand

Chapter 17:-International Affairs and the Second War of Independence

Chapter 18: Garibaldi and the Thousand: The Final Victory

Chapter 19: End of the Chapter: Unification of Venetia and Rome; Third War of Independence

Chapter 20:- Beginnings of National Government

Conclusion

Appendix: On Roman Roads

Bibliography

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Introduction

The story of Italy’s struggle for independence involves an intricate series of events which stretch back to her inception. Certain factors must be continually borne in mind to comprehend the obstacles which remained insurmountable for centuries.

The glory of the Roman Empire evoked a magical fascination on generations of Italians, stirring the constant nostalgia and desire to revive the Peninsula as a mighty power. The Fall of Rome in 410 left a political and military void, into which poured successive waves of invaders: Lombards, Franks, Arabs, Saxons and Normans. Charlemagne briefly held the Peninsula together, albeit in joint control with the papacy. Most invaders were benevolent in their treatment of the natives, blending their administrative systems and cultures with the indigenous methods and ideas. Many of the leaders were highly cultured, reigning over brilliant courts of wisdom and innovation, tolerant of ethnic-religious diversity, together with improvement of the economic base.

After the disintegration of the Roman Empire, the papacy offered the only source of resistance. It played a key role in defending the Peninsula from invaders, organizing defence and providing some semblance of governance throughout the turbulent times. Basing the papacy’s secular authority on the Donation of Constantine, the popes presented a combative counterweight to the aspirations of the emperors who, after Charlemagne, were German in origin and who coveted the prestigious title of Holy Roman Emperor and possession of the Peninsula. Yet the papacy’s very success in secular politics, involving its control of the central swathe of the Peninsula, allied with its religious hold on the people, later rendered it diametrically opposed to the growing desire for independence and unity.

The papal-imperial conflict gave way to the rising power blocs of France and Spain, together with the emergence of the Hapsburg dynasty, all of whom exploited the northern Peninsula as a battle-ground on which to stake their claim to Italian territory, regardless of the sensibilities of the natives. Spain ruled the Peninsula for almost 200 years, followed by the Austrian Hapsburgs. Napoleon Bonaparte incorporated Italy into his Empire, only to be driven out by the return of the Austrians, the last foreign power in Italy.

The rise of the city communes is a crucial factor in the story. Jealous of their centuries-old municipal rights and privileges they opposed subjugation by the Church, emperor or any other foreign invader. Highly independent-minded and politically autonomous, they formed short-lived alliances to suit their own ends, promptly dissolving them when their goal was achieved. The most powerful communes developed into a jigsaw of autonomous city-states, which seriously hampered the struggle for independence and unity. For this reason, I have usually referred to the Peninsula throughout the text, since Italy had little meaning as a political concept until unification in 1860. I am indebted to Professor S. R. Epstein’s excellent paper on the subject. I have included socio-economic and cultural analysis to place the political narrative into a more comprehensive context.

It was the Age of Enlightenment, or Iluminismo, that provided a much-needed boost to shake the Italians out of their intellectual torpor, long dormant since the golden age of the Renaissance. Italians throughout the Peninsula analysed the reasons for their subjugation and disunity, proposing a variety of solutions which provided the momentum for the Risorgimento. Britain remained quietly on the sidelines, her quiet but effective diplomacy offering support and encouragement to the Italian cause. Success was at long last achieved in 1860 with the expulsion of the Austrian interloper and the unification of Italy. Fortune shone upon the magnificent triumvirate of Mazzini, the religious radical who set in motion the future course of events; Cavour, the master statesman who spun his web of intrigue amongst kings and diplomats; and Garibaldi, the gallant soldier who presented half of Italy to his King. I wish to express my gratitude to Professor Andrea Marrone for his superb book on the Battle of Volturno and the science of military technology.

I also extend special thanks to my daughter Antonia for reading the text and for her valued encouragement.

Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge ownership of copyright. The author and publisher will be glad to make arrangements with any copyright holders with whom it has not been possible to contact.

Although every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the author and publisher assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. Neither is any liability assumed for damages resulting from the use of information contained herein.

I am happy for material to be used from my book, provided that the source is quoted. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

I have appreciated the intellectual challenge of writing this book, and I hope that you will enjoy reading it.

Avis L. Pightling

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Part One

Invasion and Subjugation

Chapter 1

Setting the Scene: Indigenous Peoples; Early Invaders

Ever since the dawn of time, Italy has nurtured human civilization, its southern area being in contact with the Adriatic and eastern Mediterranean. Virtually an island, the Peninsula is bathed on three sides by the warm waters of the Mediterranean; whilst to the north the Alps shelter the land from the chilly wet climes of northern Europe. Although the Peninsula is hilly and mountainous, there exist an extensive coastal plain and lowlands, especially the valley plain of the river Po in the north. Such a benign climate and reasonable topography invite habitation, offering favourable agricultural conditions and a salubrious existence in the absence of extreme climatic conditions. The sheer extent of coastline offered easy access to invaders.

The Late Bronze Age witnessed the spread of the Terramare culture over the Po plain. The Early Iron Age saw the spread of the Villanovan culture, of Danubian origin, southwards to central and southern Italy in the regions of Latium and Campanium where, unlike other Italian peoples, cremation rather than burial was practised. They influenced early Roman culture, both forms of funeral rites being adopted in later Roman times. The higher Central Apennines remained immune to outside influence due to its forbidding topography.

Pre-Roman Italy possessed numerous tribes or peoples, which perhaps explains the Italians’ innate attachment to their origins. There were the Celts of the Gallic Cisalpine region in the north; the Ligurians and Umbrians in their respective present-day areas; the Etruscans in present-day Tuscany; the Sabellian and Oscan mountain tribes of Abruzzo and Molise; the Oscans and Samnites in Campania. In the south, the Messapians inhabited Apulia in the ‘heel’ of Italy; the Lucanians and Oscans the ‘instep’ of Basilicata; the Bruttian and Oscars in the ‘toe’ of Calabria.

A major characteristic of the indigenous Italian race was their language. Ethnically composed of local types of Mediterranean stock, they were mixed further north with Alpine stock and Nordic folk characteristics, whilst Celtic and Teutonic invaders introduced their speech. All the ancient languages of the Peninsula were of Indo-European origin except Etruscan, which probably hailed from Asia Minor (present-day Turkey). The Venetic and Messapian languages were the oldest and resembled the Balkan language. More diffuse were the Italic languages: Latin and associated dialects were spoken in the western lowlands, whilst Oscan, Umbrian and Sabellian spread from the northern Apennines through the central mountain range down to the far south. About 600 BC the central European Celtic (Gallic) tongue replaced Italic speech in the northern plain and along the Adriatic coast: Celtic raiders from Gaul (France) reached Rome in 390 BC. Sicily and southern Italy saw the establishment of Greek settlements from about the eighth century BC, bringing their own dialects. Etruscan was confined to Etruria. Latin eventually replaced all these languages by the time of the Christian era, although Greek remained the second language in Sicily.

Early Invaders: the Etruscans

It seems that the Etruscans (also known as Etrurians or Tyrrhenians) came from western Asia Minor around 1000 BC and adopted the indigenous Villanovan culture. Occupying land between the rivers Arno and Tiber they established a League of twelve cities, such as Bologna and Rimini, controlled by strong family units, an early sign of what is still a strong feature of Italian culture nowadays. The Tuscans took control of Rome and spread southwards into Campania, then northwards to the plains which they subsequently lost to the invading Gauls around 600 BC. The Romans rebelled c. 510 BC, blocking the vital Tiber crossing which controlled the land route to the south. The Etruscans lost their sea power in 474 BC to the Sicilian Greeks at the Battle of Cumae. The Romans destroyed the main Etruscan fortress in the south at Veii in 397 BC and annihilated them by 250 BC, although the Romans retained elements of the Etruscan culture.

The indigenous peoples of Sicily resembled the Iberian tribes and were joined by the Sicels from Italy, all of whom were reduced to serfdom by the invading Greeks who c.700–800 BC colonized the eastern area; whilst the western zone was dominated by the Phoenician traders (from modern Lebanon) who rivalled the Greeks from the sixth to the third centuries BC. The Greeks considered their colonies as a ‘home from home’ (apoikia), established as a solution for overpopulation and economic problems on the Greek mainland. Palermo was an important harbour. On the southern mainland, known as Magna Grecia, they built Neapolis (‘new town’, now Naples) and other cities in the south such as Paestum (Posidonia), Crotona and Reggio. Tarentum (Taranto) was a thriving port with fisheries and a flourishing hinterland; it later posed a threat to Roman supremacy by serving as a supply base for Hannibal’s army. Ancona on the Adriatic coast was founded in the fourth century BC as a trading outpost of Syracuse in eastern Sicily. The Roman Empire’s subsequent involvement in Greece, Macedonia and the new Greek kingdoms of Syria and Egypt brought Hellenic culture to the Peninsula, enriching the indigenous Latin civilization.

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Chapter 2:

The Rise of the Roman Empire

Rome was founded in 753 BC on the site of a village inhabited by peasants and shepherds. Her origins are steeped in mythological mystery. The Trojan prince Aeneas fled from the Greeks who had craftily entered his city of Troy hidden within the Wooden Horse. He and his companions landed on the Italian Peninsula where they founded Rome and fraternized with the natives to create the Roman race. According to legend a pair of twins named Romulus and Remus were not only descended from Aeneas but were also the sons of the gods Mars and Rea Silvia. They survived in the wild thanks to being fed milk by a she-wolf. Romulus became the first king of Rome, which for two centuries was ruled by a succession of seven kings 1 of varying ability, until 510 BC when Tarquinius the Proud was banished and the Republic proclaimed, which lasted until 45 BC.

Rome owed its geographical prominence to being at the centre of the lowland Campagna 2 and its strategic control of the Tiber crossing between Etruria to the north and Latium to the south, where the ancient Etruscan Via Salaria (Salt Way) carried salt from the port of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber north-east to the Abruzzo region. Rome was one of the settlements for thirty Latin peoples in the Campagna who formed a league between the sixth and fourth centuries BC to defend themselves against the aggressive tribes in the surrounding highlands, mainly Sabines who had previously dominated the area, with the Volsci and Aequi to the east and south. About 600–510 BC three Etruscan kings dominated the Latin League and the Sabines, only to be expelled by the newly-formed Roman Republic. The League was dissolved in 348 BC as a result of internal quarrels.

The Roman Republic was divided into three parts, its command of central Italy separating the two Confederations of the south (Apulia and Lucania (Basilicata) and the centre/north, Etruria and Umbria); plus Gallia-Cisalpina in the far north. The Romans enlisted the help of the Greek navy to take control of Etruria, and the south, also Syracuse in Sicily, rewarding their allies with special privileges. The Romans proceeded to conquer the whole of the Peninsula, taking advantage of the topography. First they moved south-east into the Plain of Campagna; then through Apulia (327–290 BC). They subsequently progressed along the Via Latina inland of the Alban Hills to conquer the Samnites and other groups of the Southern Confederation. They subdued Etruria, taking Veii in 397 BC, and Umbria in the Pennine foothills. Next the Romans headed north-east into the more difficult terrain of the central Apennines to control the fierce Oscan and Samnite tribes (who became the toughest soldiers in the Roman Army) so as to secure the great military route of the Via Flaminia, key to the control of Rome, through the Apennines to the Adriatic. Later the papacy came to appreciate the strategic importance of the Via Flaminia, its territorial extent reflecting that of the Roman Empire.

Expansion of Rome in Italy. (Figures refer to dates of conquest.)

The Romans pressed on to subjugate the tough Ligurians of the northern Apennines (c.220–118 BC), passing through Genoa into French Provence and establishing the frontier west of Nicaea (Nice) along the river Var. The densely-populated flat Northern Plain of the river Padus (Po) was easily taken (225–160 BC), thereby securing the strategic crossing points of the Po at Placentia (Piacenza) and Cremona. The Roman frontier lay along the Apennines and the shallow Rubicon river south of Ravenna: in 49 BC Julius Caesar did not consider himself in Italy until he had crossed the Rubicon. By 90 BC all Italy south of the Po had been welded into a single Roman state. In 27 BC the first Emperor Augustus incorporated Cisalpine Gaul: land north of the Po as far as the Alpine foothills. The Romans built a vast network of roads, usually named after their builder, which continue to function as vital arteries of modern-day Italian communications. 3 The main passes through the Alps were the Brenner and Splügen, the two Saint Bernard passes, Montgenièvre and through the Julian Alps, mostly constructed by the Emperor Augustus.

The Romans either levied a tribute on the conquered peoples with which to hire mercenaries to police the territories; or they granted varying degrees of Roman citizenship, in return for military service. Farmers given full Roman citizenship set up coloni which garrisoned strategic areas both inland and at coastal harbours. The coloni facilitated the diffusion of Roman culture, some of which later developed into important Italian cities.

The Romans coveted the rich wheat-growing lands of northern Tunisia, and to this end again enlisted the help of the Greeks in waging the First Punic War against the Carthaginians (from modern Tunisia) in 264–241 BC. They took control of Sicily from the city of Carthage and annexed Sardinia, which became the first overseas provincia. The city of Taranto allied with Carthage but was eventually taken in 272 BC. During the Second Punic War 218–201 BC the Carthaginians invaded Italy but were defeated by the Romans, who in 146 BC destroyed their city of Carthage. Rome now reigned supreme in the Peninsula and the Mediterranean. Following upon a civil war in 90 BC between members of the northern and southern Confederations, citizenship was granted to all in Italy and Cisalpine Gaul in the north. However serious socio-economic problems were mounting: municipal government was in decline which culminated in violent uprisings against the Republican government in 88–80 BC, and later during 49–30 BC. These were put to an end by Julius Caesar who seized power and proclaimed himself Emperor in 49 BC; and by his adopted son Octavian, later known as Augustus, who reigned as Emperor from 44 BC to AD 14.

Augustus carried out administrative reforms planned by Julius Caesar. He re-established the Republic in name yet continued to wield enormous power as Emperor or ‘princeps’. The Senate continued to govern the eleven regions of Italy which were divided into coloniae or municipiae and confirmed by charter. They retained the traditional council, magistrates, meetings and local laws, which later on constituted the right of existence of the medieval communes. Much of Rome was rebuilt, its population totalling about one million in the second century AD.

The Empire reached its greatest extent under the Emperor Trajan in 117 AD, reaching as far as Syria and Iraq to the east; the Danube valley to the north-east and England to the north; plus Spain and North Africa to the southern Mediterranean. This colossal empire remained strong for two centuries, falling gradually into decline after 180, but especially during the reign of the emperors who became increasingly autocratic. The Emperor Commodus was weak but control revived under Emperors Septimus, Aurelian and Probus who stemmed the barbarian incursions of the Goths (247–251), the Franks (230-76) and the Persians (260–270). Emperor Aurelian (270–275) radically changed the military balance of power by fortifying Rome; whilst Milan, Ravenna and Aquileia became advance bases for the defence of the Peninsula. The Empire had become unwieldy by its sheer size: human resources and equipment were overstretched, making the territories ungovernable. Military discipline was lax and the plague a regular menace. There were food shortages caused partly by manpower being transferred from the fields to the army, partly by competition from the North African granaries which made home-grown wheat uneconomic. City life lured people away from the countryside and exacerbated the divisions between the patrician rich and plebeian poor. In the third century the military and civic administrations were split, which further weakened the imperial government and loosened the bond between citizenship and imperial service.

In an effort to restore administrative efficiency to the vast Empire, in 285 the new Emperor Diocletian set up four new administrative capitals, one of which was Milan (the others were Trier, Sirmium and Nicomedia) thereby increasing the strategic and political importance of the Northern Plain over the rest of the Peninsula. Diocletian divested himself of constitutional control and proclaimed himself ‘dominus’ or master and governed in an increasingly autocratic manner, thereby diminishing the relationship between ruler and ruled. Rome and Italy became mere tribute-paying provinces.

Rome’s prestige was further diluted by the Emperor Constantine, a Serb who converted to Christianity, and who in 326 created the Christian