Fruit and Vegetable Phytochemicals: Chemistry and Human Health, 2 Volumes

Now in two volumes and containing more than seventy chapters, the second edition of Fruit and Vegetable Phytochemicals: Chemistry, Nutritional Value and Stability has been greatly revised and expanded. Written by hundreds of experts from across the world, the chapters cover diverse aspects of chemistry and biological functions, the influence of postharvest technologies, analysis methods and important phytochemicals in more than thirty fruits and vegetables.

Providing readers with a comprehensive and cutting-edge description of the metabolism and molecular mechanisms associated with the beneficial effects of phytochemicals for human health, this is the perfect resource not only for students and teachers but also researchers, physicians and the public in general.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Wiley
• Release date: Aug 25, 2017
• ISBN: 9781119157977

Book preview

List of Contributors

Ahmad Faizal Abdull Razis

Laboratory of Molecular Biomedicine

Institute of Bioscience

Laboratory of Food Safety and Food Integrity

Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Selangor

Malaysia

Mohammed Adnan

Mangalore Institute of Oncology

Pumpwell

Mangalore

Karnataka

India

Tripti Agarwal

Department of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences

National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management (NIFTEM)

Ministry of Food Processing Industries

Kundli

Sonepat

Haryana

India

Carlos Agudelo

Nutrition and Dietetic School

University of Antioquia

Medellín

Colombia

Ahmed Ait-Oubahou

Agronomic and Veterinary Institute Hassan II

Agadir

Morocco

Muhammad Tayyab Akhtar

Laboratory of Natural Products

Institute of Bioscience

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Selangor

Malaysia

Mohammad Al Abid

Mantrust Services Inc

Brampton

Canada

Emilio Álvarez-Parrilla

Autonomous University of the City of Juarez

Juarez, Anillo Envolvente del PRONAF y Estocolmo s/n Chihuahua

Mexico

Priyatharini Ambigaipalan

Department of Biochemistry

Memorial University of Newfoundland

St. John's

Newfoundland

Canada

Maria L. Amodio

Department of the Science of Agriculture, Food, and Environment

University of Foggia

Foggia

Italy

Luis M. Anaya-Esparza

Integral Food Research Laboratory

Technological Institute of Tepic

Tepic

Nayarit

Mexico

Miriam A. Anaya-Loyola

Faculty of Natural Sciences

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Sandra Sulay Arango

Faculty of Sciences

Metropolitan Institute of Technology

Medellín

Colombia

Asvinidevi Arumugam

Laboratory of UPM-MAKNA Cancer Research

Institute of Bioscience

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Selangor

Malaysia

Graciela Ávila-Quezada

University Autonomous of Chihuahua

Zootechnics and Ecology Department

Chihuahua

Mexico

Jesús Fernando Ayala-Zavala

Technology of Food of Vegetable Origin

Research Center for Food and Development

Hermosillo

Sonora

Mexico

Ramiro Baeza-Jiménez

Research Center for Food and Development (CIAD)

Delicias

Chihuahua

Mexico

Moustapha Bah

Laboratory of Chemical and Pharmacological Research of Natural Products

Faculty of Chemistry

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Manjeshwar Shrinath Baliga

Mangalore Institute of Oncology

Pumpwell

Mangalore

Karnataka

India

Pratyusha Banerjee

Department of Zoology

University of Kalyani

Nadia

West Bengal

India

Maurizio Battino

Department of Odontostomatology and Specialized Clinical Sciences

Faculty of Medicine

Polytechnic University of Marche

Ancona

Italy

Mohamed Benichou

Food Sciences Laboratory

Faculty of Sciences

Cadi Ayyad University

Marrakech

Morocco

A. Thalía Bernal-Mercado

Technology of Food of Vegetable Origin

Research Center for Food and Development

Hermosillo

Sonora

Mexico

Francisco J. Blancas-Benítez

Integral Food Research Laboratory

Technological Institute of Tepic

Tepic

Nayarit

Mexico

Cristine Vanz Borges

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry

Institute of Biosciences

Paulista State University (UNESP)

Botucatu

São Paulo

Brazil

Laura Bravo-Clemente

Department of Metabolism and Nutrition

Institute of Food Science

Technology, and Nutrition (ICTAN-CSIC)

Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)

Madrid

Spain

Jeffrey K. Brecht

Horticultural Sciences Department

Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences

University of Florida

Gainesville

Florida

USA

Puran Bridgemohan

University of Trinidad and Tobago

Centre of Biosciences

Agriculture and Food Technology

Waterloo Research Campus

Carapichaima

Trinidad

Ronell S.H. Bridgemohan

Georgia College and State University

Milledgeville

Georgia

USA

Lucio Cardozo-Filho

Department of Chemical Engineering

State University of Maringá

Maringá

Brazil

Armando Carrillo-López

Food Science and Technology Postgraduate Program

Faculty of Chemical-Biological Science

Autonomous University of Sinaloa

Sinaloa

Mexico

Adriana Cavazos-Garduño

University Center for Exact Science and Engineering (CUCEI)

Pharmacobiology Department

University of Guadalajara

Guadalajara

Jalisco

Mexico

Braulio Cervantes-Paz

Faculty of Natural Sciences

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Anoma Chandrasekara

Department of Applied Nutrition

Wayamba University of Sri Lanka

Makandura (Gonawila)

Sri Lanka

Cielo D. Char

Biopolymer Research and Engineering Laboratory

School of Nutrition and Dietetics

University of the Andes

Las Condes

Santiago

Chile

Fani Chatzopoulou

Group of Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Plants

Laboratory of Pharmacognosy

Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

Thessaloniki

Greece

Muhammad M. A. Chaudhry

Department of the Science of Agriculture

Food, and Environment

University of Foggia

Foggia

Italy

Emma Chiavaro

Department of Food and Drug

University of Parma

Parma

Italy

Luis Cisneros-Zevallos

Department of Horticultural Sciences

Texas A&M University

College Station

Texas

USA

Giancarlo Colelli

Department of the Science of Agriculture

Food, and Environment

University of Foggia

Foggia

Italy

Ana V. Coria-Téllez

Laboratory of Analysis of Heritage

The College of Michoacan

La Piedad

Michoacan

Mexico

Frida R. Cornejo-García

Faculty of Natural Sciences

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Javier De la Cruz Medina

UNIDA

Technological Institute of Veracruz

Veracruz

Mexico

Oscar Andrés Del Ángel Coronel

Superior Techological Institute of Huatusco

Food Industry Engineering Division

Huatusco

Veracruz

Mexico

Laura A. de la Rosa

Autonomous University of the City of Juarez

Juarez, Anillo Envolvente del PRONAF y Estocolmo s/n

Chihuahua

Mexico

Francisco Delgado-Vargas

School of Chemical and Biological Sciences

Autonomous University of Sinaloa

Ciudad Universitaria s/n

Culiacan

Sinaloa

Mexico

Antonio Derossi

Department of the Science of Agriculture, Food, and Environment

University of Foggia

Foggia

Italy

Tushar Dhanani

ICAR-Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research

Anand

Gujarat

India

Lucia Di Vittori

Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences

Polytechnic University of Marche

Ancona

Italy

J. Abraham Domínguez-Ávila

Technology of Food of Plant Origin

Research Center for Food and Development

Hermosillo

Sonora

Mexico

Jane S. dos Reis Coimbra

Department of Food Technology

Federal University of Viçosa

Viçosa

Brazil

Idaresit Ekaette

Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science

University of Alberta

Edmonton

Alberta

Canada

Ibrahim Elmadfa

IUNS Past-President TR Department of Nutritional Sciences

Faculty of Life Sciences

University of Vienna

Vienna

Austria

Machel A. Emanuel

Department of Life Sciences

Faculty of Science and Technology

University of the West Indies

Kingston

Jamaica

Tatiana Emanuelli

Integrated Center for Laboratory Analysis Development (NIDAL)

Department of Food Technology and Science

Federal University of Santa Maria

Santa Maria

Brazil

Mustafa Erkan

Department of Horticulture

Faculty of Agriculture

Akdeniz University

Antalya

Turkey

Mark L. Failla

Human Nutrition Program

The Ohio State University

Columbus

Ohio

USA

Charles F. Forney

Kentville Research and Development Centre

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

Kentville

Nova Scotia

Canada

Yuly Nataly Franco Tobón

Faculty of Pharmaceutical and Food Sciences

University of Antioquia

Hospital Pablo Tobón Uribe

Medellín

Colombia

Carolina Fredes

Department of Food Science and Chemical Technology

Faculty of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences

University of Chile

Santiago

Chile

Jose Alberto Gallegos-Infante

Chemical and Biochemical Department

Durango Institute of Technology

Durango

Mexico

Hugo S. García

UNIDA

Technological Institute of Veracruz

Veracruz

Mexico

Mónica L. García-Bañuelos

Research Center for Food and Development, A.C. (C.I.A.D.)

Hermosillo

Sonora

Mexico

Teresa García-Gasca

Faculty of Natural Sciences

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

María de Lourdes García-Magaña

Integral Food Research Laboratory

Technological Institute of Tepic

Tepic

Nayarit

Mexico

Lorena Asucena García Noguez

Faculty of Medicine

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Pablo García-Solís

Faculty of Medicine

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Rebeca García-Varela

CIATEJ

Apodaca

Nueva Leon

Mexico

Alfonso A. Gardea

Research Center for Food and Development, A.C. (C.I.A.D.) Hermosillo

Sonora

Mexico

Laura E. Gayosso-García Sancho

Engineering in Food Technology

State University of Sonora

Ley Federal del Trabajo s/n

Hermosillo

Sonora

Mexico

Gustavo A. González-Aguilar

Technology of Food of Vegetable Origin

Research Center for Food and Development

Hermosillo

Sonora

Mexico

Aarón F. González-Córdova

Center for Food Research and Development (CIAD)

Hermosillo

Samara

Mexico

Ruben Francisco Gonzalez-Laredo

Chemical and Biochemical Department

Durango Institute of Technology

Durango

Mexico

Francisco M. Goycoolea

School of Food Science and Nutrition

University of Leeds

Leeds

UK

Abdelkarim Guaâdaoui

Laboratory of Genetics and Biotechnology (LGB)

Team (2) Valorisation of Natural and Synthetic

Products and Biotechnologies

Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences (FSO)

Mohammed the First University (UMP)

Oujda

Morocco

Fabiola Gutiérrez-Orozco

Mead Johnson Nutrition

Evansville

Indiana

USA

Avtar K. Handa

Department of Horticulture

Purdue University

West Lafayette

Indiana

USA

Shinko Hata

Research Laboratory

Ig-M Co. Ltd.

Nakamachi

Minatojima

Chuo-ku

Kobe

Japan

Nancy Georgina Hernández Chan

Faculty of Medicine

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Adrián Hernández Mendoza

Center for Food Research and Development (CIAD)

Hermosillo

Sonora

Mexico

Hebert Luis Hernández-Montiel

Faculty of Medicine

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Ana Gabriela Hernández Puga

Faculty of Medicine

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Inocencio Higuera

Food Technology Unit

Center for Research and Assistance in Technology and Design of the State of Jalisco

A.C. (CIATEJ)

Zapopan

Jalisco

Mexico

César Ibarra-Alvarado

Laboratory of Chemical and Pharmacological Research of Natural Products

Faculty of Chemistry

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Siti Nazirah Ismail

Laboratory of Natural Products

Institute of Bioscience

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Selangor

Malaysia

Eduardo Jacob-Lopes

Department of Food Technology and Science

Federal University of Santa Maria

Santa Maria

Brazil

Amar Kaanane

Agronomic and Veterinary Institute Hassan II

Rabat

Morocco

Niwat Kaewseejan

Department of Chemistry

Faculty of Science

Mahasarakham University

Maha Sarakham

Thailand

Mathias Kaiser

University of Münster

IBBP

Münster

Germany

Angelos K. Kanellis

Group of Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Plants

Laboratory of Pharmacognosy

Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

Thessaloniki

Greece

Bhavneet Kaur

Sustainable Agricultural Systems Laboratory

The Henry A. Wallace Agricultural Research Center

Agricultural Research Service

United States Department of Agriculture

Beltsville

Maryland

USA

Nattaya Konsue

School of Agro-Industry

Mae Fah Luang University

Chiang Rai

Thailand

Stefanos Kostas

Department of Horticulture

School of Agriculture

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

Thessaloniki

Greece

Athanasios Koukounaras

Department of Horticulture

School of Agriculture

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

Thessaloniki

Greece

Satyanshu Kumar

ICAR-Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research

Anand

Gujarat

India

Vinay Kumar

Department of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences

National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management (NIFTEM)

Ministry of Food Processing Industries

Kundli

Sonepat

Haryana

India

Manas Kumar Mukhopadhyay

Department of Zoology

University of Kalyani

Nadia

West Bengal

India

Andrés E. León-Fernández

Integral Food Research Laboratory

Technological Institute of Tepic

Tepic

Nayarit

Mexico

Elizabeth León-García

UNIDA

Technological Institute of Veracruz

Veracruz

Mexico

Gabriela López-Angulo

School of Chemical and Biological Sciences

Autonomous University of Sinaloa

Ciudad Universitaria s/n

Culiacan

Sinaloa

Mexico

Mónica López Hidalgo

Faculty of Medicine

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Leticia X. López-Martínez

CONACYT-Research Center for Food and Development (CIAD)

Culiacán

Sinaloa

Mexico

Francisco J. Luna-Vázquez

Laboratory of Chemical and Pharmacological Research of Natural Products

Faculty of Chemistry

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Valery G. Makarov

St-Petersburg Institute of Pharmacy

Leningrad Region

Vsevolozhsky

Russia

María Elena Maldonado Celis

Nutrition and Dietetic School

University of Antioquia

Medellín

Colombia

Pertti Marnila

Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke)

Jokioinen

Finland

Olga Martín-Belloso

Department of Food Technology

UTPV-CeRTA

University of Lleida

Lleida

Spain

María Raquel Mateos Briz

Department of Metabolism and Nutrition

Institute of Food Science

Technology, and Nutrition (ICTAN-CSIC)

Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)

Madrid

Spain

Pirjo H. Mattila

Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke)

Jokioinen

Finland

Autar K. Mattoo

Sustainable Agricultural Systems Laboratory

The Henry A. Wallace Agricultural Research Center

Agricultural Research Service

United States Department of Agriculture

Beltsville

Maryland

USA

Luca Mazzoni

Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences

Polytechnic University of Marche

Ancona

Italy

Cintia Anabela Mazzucotelli

Engineering Faculty National University of Mar del Plata

Mar del Plata

Argentina

Ifigeneia Mellidou

Group of Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Plants

Laboratory of Pharmacognosy

Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

Thessaloniki

Greece

Lorena Méndez Villa

Faculty of Medicine

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Alexa L. Meyer

Department of Nutritional Sciences

Faculty of Life Sciences

University of Vienna

Vienna

Austria

Bruno Mezzetti

Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences

Polytechnic University of Marche

Ancona

Italy

Igor Otavio Minatel

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry

Institute of Biosciences

Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP)

Botucatu

São Paulo

Brazil

Yoshiyuki Mizushina

Research Laboratory

Ig-M Co. Ltd.

Nakamachi

Minatojima

Chuo-ku

Kobe

Japan

Majeed Mohammed

Department of Food Production

Faculty of Food and Production

The University of the West Indies

St. Augustine

Trinidad

Noor Akhmazillah Mohd Fauzi

Department of Chemical Engineering Technology

Faculty of Engineering Technology

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM)

Batu Pahat

Johor

Malaysia

Efigenia Montalvo-González

Integral Food Research Laboratory

Technological Institute of Tepic

Tepic

Nayarit

Mexico

Julio Montes-Ávila

School of Chemical and Biological Sciences

Autonomous University of Sinaloa

Ciudad Universitaria s/n

Culiacan

Sinaloa

Mexico

Nelly Angélica Morales Guerrero

Faculty of Medicine

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Martha Rocio Moreno-Jimenez

Chemical and Biochemical Department

Durango Institute of Technology

Durango

Mexico

Manas Kumar Mukhopadhyay

Department of Zoology

University of Kalyani

Nadia

West Bengal

India

Fabiola C. Muñoz-De la Cruz

Faculty of Natural Sciences

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Taresh S. Naik

Father Muller Medical College

Mangalore

Karnataka

India

Narendra Narain

Laboratory of Flavor and Chromatographic Analysis

Federal University of Sergipe

Sao Cristovao-SE

Brazil

Debjani Nath

Department of Zoology

University of Kalyani

Nadia

West Bengal

India

Eva N. Obledo-Vázquez

Unit of Plant Biotechnology

Center for Research and Assistance in Technology and Design of the State of Jalisco

Guadalajara

Mexico

Francisco J. Olivas-Aguirre

Department of Chemical-Biological Sciences

Autonomous University of the City of Juarez

Chihuahua

Mexico

José de Jesús Ornelas-Paz

Center for Research in Food and Development

Unidad Cuauhtémoc, Laboratory of Phytochemicals and Nutrients, Cuauhtémoc

Chihuahua

Mexico

J. Antonio Orozco-Avitia

Research Center for Food and Development, A.C. (C.I.A.D.)

Hermosillo

Sonora

Mexico

Ramón Pacheco-Ordaz

Center for Food Research and Development A.C. (CIAD)

Hermosillo

Sonora

Mexico

Maria Paciulli

Department of Food and Drug

University of Parma

Parma

Italy

Mariantonella Palermo

Department of Agriculture and Food Science

University of Naples Federico II

Naples

Italy

Sunil Pareek

Department of Agriculture & Environmental Sciences

National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management (NIFTEM)

Ministry of Food Processing Industries

Kundli

Sonepat

Haryana

India

Nicoletta Pellegrini

Department of Food and Drug

University of Parma

Parma

Italy

Alvaro Peña-Neira

Faculty of Agronomical Sciences

University of Chile

Campus Antumapu

La Pintana

Santiago

Chile

Giuseppina Pace Pereira Lima

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry

Institute of Biosciences

Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP)

Botucatu

São Paulo

Brazil

Karkala Shreedhara Ranganath Pai

Department of Pharmacology

Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences

Manipal University

Manipal

Karnataka

India

Jara Pérez-Jiménez

Department of Metabolism and Nutrition

Institute of Food Science

Technology, and Nutrition (ICTAN-CSIC)

Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)

Madrid

Spain

Anne Pihlanto

Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke)

Jokioinen

Finland

Olga N. Pozharitskaya

St-Petersburg Institute of Pharmacy

Leningrad Region

Vsevolozhsky

Russia

Rashmi Priya

Institute for Molecular Biosciences

University of Queensland

Brisbane

Australia

Leila Queiroz Zepka

Department of Food Technology and Science

Federal University of Santa Maria

Santa Maria

Brazil

Ana Elena Quirós Sauceda

Center for Food Research and Development (CIAD)

Hermosillo

Sonora

Mexico

Suyare A. Ramalho

Laboratory of Flavor and Chromatographic Analysis

Federal University of Sergipe

Sao Cristovao-SE

Brazil

Asghar Ramezanian

Department of Horticultural Science

College of Agriculture

Shiraz University

Shiraz

Iran

Marco V. Ramírez-Marez

Department of Biochemical Engineering

Technological Institute of Morelia

Morelia Mich

Mexico

Vikram Singh Ratnu

Queensland Brain Institute

University of Queensland

Brisbane

Australia

Julián Valeriano Reyes López

Faculty of Medicine

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Paz Robert

Department of Food Science and Chemical Technology

Faculty of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences

University of Chile

Santiago

Chile

Ludivina Robles-Osorio

Faculty of Medicine

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Nuria Elizabeth Rocha-Guzman

Chemical and Biochemical Department

Durango Institute of Technology

Durango

Mexico

María Janeth Rodríguez-Roque

Faculty of Agrotechnological Sciences

Autonomous University of Chihuahua

Av. Universidad s/n

Chihuahua

Mexico

Miguel Roehrs

University Hospital of Santa Maria (HUSM)

Integrated Center for Laboratory Analysis Development (NIDAL)

Federal University of Santa Maria

Santa Maria

Brazil

Benjamin Rojano

Faculty of Sciences

National University of Colombia

Medellín

Colombia

Alejandra Rojas-Molina

Laboratory of Chemical and Pharmacological Research of Natural Products

Faculty of Chemistry

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Juana I. Rojas-Molina

Laboratory of Chemical and Pharmacological Research of Natural Products

Faculty of Chemistry

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Paula Rossini Augusti

Institute of Food Science and Technology

Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul

Porto Alegre

Brazil

Carmen Sáenz

Department of Agroindustry and Oenology

Faculty of Agricultural Sciences

University of Chile

Santiago

Chile

Maha Sagar

Food Sciences Laboratory

Faculty of Sciences

Cadi Ayyad University

Marrakech

Morocco

Narashans Alok Sagar

Department of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences

National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management (NIFTEM)

Ministry of Food Processing Industries

Kundli

Sonepat

Haryana

India

Marleny D.A. Saldaña

Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Sciences

Faculty of Agricultural, Life and Environmental Sciences

University of Alberta

Edmonton

Alberta

Canada

Elroy Saldanha

Father Muller Medical College

Mangalore

Karnataka

India

Mikal E. Saltveit

Mann Laboratory

Department of Plant Sciences

University of California

Davis

California

USA

Jorge A. Sánchez-Burgos

Integral Food Research Laboratory

Technological Institute of Tepic

Tepic

Nayarit

Mexico

Esteban Sánchez-Chávez

Research Center for Food and Development, A.C.(C.I.A.D.)

Hermosillo

Sonora

Mexico

Beatriz Sarriá Ruíz

Department of Metabolism and Nutrition

Institute of Food Science

Technology, and Nutrition (ICTAN-CSIC)

Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)

Madrid

Spain

Bethzabet Sastré-Flores

Virginia Cooperative Extension

Loudoun Office

Leesburg

Virginia

USA

Fulgencio D. Saura-Calixto

Department of Metabolism and Nutrition

Institute of Food Science

Technology, and Nutrition (ICTAN-CSIC)

Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)

Madrid

Spain

Sonia Guadalupe Sáyago-Ayerdi

Integral Food Research Laboratory

Technological Institute of Tepic

Tepic

Nayarit

Mexico

Jessica Scalzo

Costa Berry Category

Range Road

Corindi

New South Wales

Australia

José C.E. Serrano

NUTREN

Nutrigenomics

University of Lleida

Lleida

Spain

María Serrano

Department of Applied Biology

Superior Polytechnic School of Orihuela

University Miguel Hernández

Orihuela (Alicante)

Spain

Julio César Serrano-Niño

University Center for Exact Science and Engineering (CUCEI)

Pharmacobiology Department

University of Guadalajara

Guadalajara

Jalisco

Mexico

Khozirah Shaari

Laboratory of Natural Products

Institute of Bioscience

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Selangor

Malaysia

Fereidoon Shahidi

Department of Biochemistry

Memorial University of Newfoundland

St. John's

Newfoundland

Canada

Sunil Sharma

Department of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences

National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management (NIFTEM)

Ministry of Food Processing Industries

Kundli

Sonepat

Haryana

India

Mithun Shaw

Department of Zoology

University of Kalyani

Nadia

West Bengal

India

Alexander N. Shikov

St-Petersburg Institute of Pharmacy

Leningrad Region

Vsevolozhsky

Russia

Raghuraj Singh

ICAR-Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research

Anand

Gujarat

India

Sirithon Siriamornpun

Department of Food Technology and Nutrition

Faculty of Technology

Mahasarakham University

Maha Sarakham

Thailand

Juan Carlos Solís-S

Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Physiology

Department of Biomedical Sciences

Faculty of Medicine

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Robert Soliva-Fortuny

Department of Food Technology

UTPV-CeRTA

University of Lleida

Lleida

Spain

Jun Song

Postharvest Physiologist

Kentville Research and Development Centre

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

Kentville

Nova Scotia

Canada

Alifdalino Sulaiman

Department of Process and Food Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM)

Selangor

Malaysia

Mostafa Z. Sultan

Horticultural Department

Faculty of Agriculture

Al-Azhar University

Nasr City

Cairo

Egypt

Mette Svendsen

Section for Preventive Cardiology

Centre of Preventive Medicine

Oslo University Hospital

Norway

María Tabernero Urbieta

Imdea Food Institute

Carretera de CantoBlanco

Madrid

Spain

Carla S. Valdivieso Ramirez

Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science

University of Alberta

Edmonton

Alberta

Canada

Daniel Valero

Department of Applied Biology

Superior Polytechnic School of Orihuela

University Miguel Hernández

Orihuela (Alicante)

Spain

Belinda Vallejo-Galland

Center for Food Research and Development (CIAD)

Hermosillo

Sonora

Mexico

Nadia M. Vázquez-Díaz

Faculty of Natural Sciences

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Gilber Vela-Gutiérrez

University of Sciences and Arts of Chiapas

Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences

Tuxtla Gutiérrez

Chiapas

Mexico

Gustavo R. Velderrain Rodríguez

Technology of Food of Vegetable Origin

Research Center for Food and Development

Hermosillo

Sonora

Mexico

Haydé Azeneth Vergara Castañeda

Faculty of Medicine

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Querétaro

Mexico

Fabio Vianello

Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science

University of Padua (UNIPD)

Padua

Italy

Abraham Wall-Medrano

Department of Health Sciences

Institute of Biomedical Sciences

Autonomous University of the City of Juarez

Chihuahua

Mexico

Elhadi M. Yahia

Faculty of Natural Sciences

Autonomous University of Querétaro

Avenida de las Ciencias s/n

Juriquilla

Querétaro

Mexico

Foreword

The importance of including a variety of fruits and vegetables in our diet in order to maintain our general health and to avoid chronic diseases is recognized by both the scientific community and the public. Increasing public awareness of the health benefits to be accrued from consuming plant foods containing high levels of nutrients is illustrated by, and has been exploited by, the marketing of the so-called superfoods, which include fruits and vegetables like açaí, blueberry, broccoli, kale, pomegranate, and others. This is despite there actually being no scientific or legal definition of a superfood – just that a marketer has highlighted its nutrient density. A similar situation exists for so-called functional foods, usually meaning processed foods that have been fortified with biologically active compounds (often or even usually plant based) that have been related to health promotion. A distinction between superfoods and functional foods is that, in contrast to super foods, products marketed as functional foods usually are required by law to contain compounds that have clinically proven and documented health benefits.

The phytochemicals that are responsible for the nutritional and health benefits accruing from consumption of fruits and vegetables are numerous and varied. While many of these phytochemicals are ubiquitous, such as the vitamins and dietary fiber, many more are unique to different groups of produce or even to individual species. Arguably, the nutritionally important phytochemicals are a subset of an even larger array, all with critical functions in the physiology of the plants in which they are found. Much research has been conducted for the purpose of identifying either the biological function of phytochemicals in plant physiology or their biological activity in animals and humans leading to health-related effects. However, with over 8000 phytochemicals known, this work is far from complete. Indeed, matters are complicated by accumulating evidence that the actions of phytochemicals, in both plant physiology and animal or human health, are synergistic. This means that studying individual phytochemicals in isolation, although to some extent unavoidable, is probably a mistake in terms of developing a complete understanding of their roles. At this time, there is clearly a need for the current phytochemical picture, incomplete as the knowledge still may be, to be assembled in one place for the benefit of the scientific and academic communities. This book, Fruit and Vegetable Phytochemicals: Chemistry and Human Health, which Elhadi Yahia has assembled with the assistance of more than 200 individual chapter authors, admirably addresses that need.

The chapters in the first part of this book explore either the biological activity and bioavailability of phytochemicals from fruits and vegetables, and the benefits in terms of human health when they are included in the diet, or the biological function of phytochemicals in the physiology of fruits and vegetables. Fruits and vegetables have always been considered to be healthy foods containing essential vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. This group of chapters includes coverage of those basics, but ventures beyond to examine the full array of phytochemicals for which evidence has been found that they either promote general health and vitality, such as through their action as antioxidants, or exhibit more specific effects in protecting against the onset of cancer, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, and diabetes. Other chapters describe the biosynthesis and biological functions of various phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables. In sum, these chapters bring the reader up to date on the body of scientific knowledge concerning phytochemistry, phytochemicals, and their influence on human health.

The 12 chapters in the second part of the book address the influence of postharvest handling and technologies on fruit and vegetable phytochemicals as well as methods to measure both the amounts of phytochemicals and their functional properties in fruits and vegetables. How fresh fruits and vegetables are handled, stored, and transported can have important consequences in terms of their phytochemistry. How they are processed and cooked also impacts phytochemical composition. Methods of extraction of phytochemicals from fruits and vegetables for use in functional foods and nutritional supplements are also covered. Several of the chapters here address sensory and other quality aspects in relation to phytochemicals, including the technologies of handling and processing that influence phytochemical composition and therefore fruit and vegetable quality. Phytochemicals certainly contribute to the sensory appeal of fruits and vegetables. For many fruiting organs, this likely relates to evolutionary selection favoring consumption by animals and leading to seed dispersal. Fruits and vegetables contain diverse arrays of colored compounds, including chlorophyll, carotenoids, flavonoids, and betalains, which contribute to the attractiveness of produce to animals and humans. Fruits and vegetables also produce complex and varied arrays of volatile aroma compounds and soluble taste compounds that are incredibly important in our enjoyment of these healthy foods. Employing proper harvesting, handling, storage, and processing practices to ensure the highest possible desirability of fruits and vegetables has many benefits. As expressed by the late Dr. Adel Kader, Providing better flavored fruits and vegetables is likely to increase their consumption, which would be good for the producers and marketers (making more money or at least staying in business) as well as for the consumers (increased consumption of healthy foods).

The third part of this book comprises about three dozen individual chapters covering the phytochemistry of different fruit and vegetable species. These chapters serve to further illustrate the wonderful diversity of phytochemicals found in fruits, vegetables, and nuts.

Dr. Yahia's effort in bringing together this gathering of experts to compile the state of the art on the phytochemistry of fruits and vegetables is praiseworthy. This book is sure to be used to guide future research on the topics included within it – both for identifying what is known and for revealing that which is still unknown. This book will also be appreciated for pointing out the important future research directions that need to be taken in order for us to make full use of fruits and vegetables in our diet for improving human health. My hope is that you, as a reader, appreciate the effort that went into creating this encyclopedic coverage of fruit and vegetable phytochemicals and the roles they play in plant and human life, as I am sure that it will inspire many of you in your future research and teaching.

Jeffrey K. Brecht, Ph.D

University of Florida

About the Editor

Dr. Elhadi M. Yahia is professor at the Autonomous University of Querétaro, Mexico, where he teaches, conducts research, and supervises graduate students on postharvest biology and technology, food science and technology, and human nutrition. He holds a B.Sc. from the University of Tripoli, Libya, an M.Sc. from the University of California, Davis, and a Ph.D. from Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. He has published 14 books in three languages, and more than 200 book chapters and research articles on biology, chemistry, nutrition, technology, and handling of perishable food crops. He was Regional Agro Industry Officer at the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), where he helped launch the Global Initiative on Food Loss and Waste Reduction and developed national and regional strategies to improve the agro industry. He serves as consultant to several organizations, such as FAO, the World Bank, World Food Logistics Organization, USAID, USDA, ICARDA, and the International Association of Refrigerated Warehouses, among others. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, the New York Academy of Sciences, The Scientific Research Society (Sigma Xi), the Scientific Advisory Council of the World Food Logistics Organization, the National Research System in Mexico, and several other national and international organizations.

Introduction

Elhadi M. Yahia

Faculty of Natural Sciences, Autonomous University of Querétaro, Avenida de las Ciencias s/n, Juriquilla, Querétaro, Qro., Mexico

1 Importance of Fruits and Vegetables

Interest in the nutritional and health values of fruits and vegetables has been increasing, in part because of the increasing incidences of some chronic diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases (Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases), and in part because of the proven importance of these food commodities for human health and nutrition (Yahia, 2009, 2010; Yahia et al., 2011). Therefore, health organizations have recommended the consumption of up to 5–13 daily servings (400–600 grams) of fruits and vegetables. A good diet should include a variety of fruits and vegetables – fresh, frozen, canned, dried, or preserved. While many fruits and vegetables are consumed primarily in their fresh state, some commodities such as tomatoes, snap beans, corn, peaches, nectarines, and pineapples are also consumed to a significant degree in their processed state.

Fruits and vegetables are rich sources of several thousands of components known as phytochemicals, belonging to many chemical classes such as fibers, pigments, vitamins, phenolic compounds, etc., and many of these are of great importance to human health and nutrition (Craig, 1997; Dillard and German, 2000; Farooqui, 2012; Gang, 2013; Kumar and Khanum, 2012; Yahia, 2009, 2010; Yahia et al., 2011) (see Table 0.11). Although a single phytochemical may display one or more bioactivities, the mixture of different components consumed as a whole may act in a complementary or synergistic manner and render health effects that are not found for isolated pure phytochemical supplements (Heber, 2004). However, the presence of high amounts of bioactive compounds in fruits and vegetables does not always ensure their bioavailability once they react against oxidative agents.

For example, fruits and vegetables have been estimated to contribute 91% of vitamin C, 48% of vitamin A, 30% of folacin, 27% of vitamin B6, 17% of thiamin, and 15% of niacin to the US diet, among other things such as minerals (Quebedeaux and Eisa, 1990).

2 Phytochemicals

Phytochemicals are chemical compounds produced naturally in plants (the Greek phyto means plant). Many phytochemicals participate in several biological processes of the plant including the formation of the color and flavor of plant foods (Naczk and Shahidi, 2003).

Phytochemicals have been classified into five major families: carotenoids, alkaloids, nitrogen-containing phytochemicals, sulfur-containing phytochemicals, and phenolics. They are a heterogeneous group of chemical compounds with numerous biological effects. The most thoroughly investigated dietary components in fruit and vegetables acting as antioxidants are phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, lycopene, vitamins A, B, C, tocopherols, and sulfides. Phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables, such as phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and glucosinolates, may also have nutritional value.

Phytochemicals form the backbone of traditional medicine, which uses plant preparations (seeds, fruits, leaves, stems, and roots) as a source of drugs. Phytochemicals have been used in various ancient medicinal systems (Chinese, Mayan, Arabic, Indian, Egyptian, Babylonian, Greek, etc.) as potential drugs against numerous diseases. They exert specific medicinal actions and may be used in response to specific health problems over short- or long-term intervals.

In recent years, research on phytochemicals has increased all over the world and new terms such as functional food and nutraceutical have been introduced. These terms illustrate the high expectations associated with current phytochemical research. However, the precise molecular mechanisms through which specific phytochemicals exert their beneficial biological effects still remain the subject of intense research.

Table 1 Sources and potential effects on human health of some phytochemicals

Source: modified from Kader, 2001.

Many phytochemicals act as antioxidants, among other mechanisms. Cells produce free radicals when they use oxygen for energy, and antioxidants protect cells from the destructive effects of these byproducts. Free radicals lose an electron through the effects of radiation, pollution, smoke, etc., and can damage the tissues and cause disease in their search for electrons. Antioxidants give up their electrons so that the free radicals stabilize and are neutralized.

There are many different types of phytochemicals, including the major categories of carotenoids, isoflavones, flavonoids, indoles, lignans, saponins, organosulfur compounds, polyphenols, and monoterpenes. Carotenoids are perhaps the best known and are found in foods with red, orange, and yellow pigments. Along with the antioxidants, carotenoids protect human beings against certain cancers, heart disease, and age-related macular degeneration (Yahia, 2010; Yahia and Ornelas-Paz, 2010). Some carotenoids are converted to form vitamin A in the body, which promotes vision, immune function, and skin and bone health. Some carotenoids help to slow down the process of aging, reduce cancer risk, improve lung function, and minimize diabetic states.

Among phytochemicals, polyphenols, phenolic acids, and flavonoids scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS), singlet molecular oxygen, and peroxyl radicals generated during lipid peroxidation. The antioxidant capacity of fruit and vegetables is a function of the amounts and types of phytochemicals that are present in these tissues. However, the individual contribution to the total antioxidant capacity varies widely. Various studies have demonstrated that phenolic compounds, particularly flavonoids, contribute to a higher extent than ascorbic acid, carotenoids, and others to the antioxidant capacity of fruits and vegetables (Yahia, 2010). Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of phytochemicals mitigate the damaging effect of oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and apoptosis.

Fruits and vegetables are rich in phytochemicals that can reduce platelet aggregation, modulate synthesis and absorption of cholesterol, and reduce blood pressure (Sanchez-Moreno et al., 2000). Some phytochemicals, such as many polyphenols, are anti-inflammatory agents through acting as inhibitors of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, a pro-inflammatory cytokine that is not detected in most normal tissues but is inducible by inflammatory and mutagenic stimuli (Heber, 2004). Some phytochemicals display anticancer activity. A consistently higher intake of fruits and vegetables is believed to provide protection against cancers of the lung, colon, breast, cervix, esophagus, oral cavity, stomach, bladder, pancreas, prostate, and ovary (Block et al., 1992; Yahia, 2009, 2010). The dietary phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables such as lycopene in tomatoes, glucosinolates in broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and kale, and allyl sulfides in garlic can limit DNA and chromosome damage through antioxidant action, modulation of detoxification and immune systems, interference with hormone metabolism, and regulation of gene expression in proliferation, cell cycle activity, and apoptosis in cancer (Pinto and Rivlin, 2001; Singh et al., 2002).

The health benefits of phytochemicals on visceral tissue and brain, for example, have been associated with their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antiproliferative, hypocholesterolemic, and cellular repair properties. In addition, effects of phytochemicals are mediated through signal transduction processes, which involve not only various transcription factors, growth factors, and inhibition of inflammatory cytokines expression, but also regulation of enzymes such as phospholipases, cyclooxygenases, protein kinases, and protein phosphatases. Phytochemicals mediate their effects through the modulation of the immune function. Therefore, regular consumption of phytochemicals from childhood to adulthood may be associated with reduced risks of several ailments such neurotraumatic (stroke, traumatic brain injury, and spinal cord injury), neurodegenerative (Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and cataracts), and neuropsychiatric (depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorders) diseases, osteoporosis, diabetes, and cancer, and some of the functional decline associated with normal aging (Yahia, 2009, 2010; WCRF/AICR, 1997).

So far hundreds of phytochemicals have been identified and quantified in fruits and vegetables belonging to diverse chemical classes (Gang, 2011). The chemical structures of phytochemicals are often used as privileged structures for creating their synthetic analogs, which have improved pharmacological activities through optimized bioavailability and pharmacokinetic profiles.

Increasing evidence suggests that consumption of whole fruits and vegetables is better than consumption of isolated components such as dietary supplements. For example, increased consumption of carotenoid-rich fruits and vegetables was more effective than carotenoid dietary supplements in increasing DLD-oxidation resistance, lowering DNA damage, and inducing repair activity in volunteers who participated in a study conducted in France, Italy, Netherlands, and Spain (Southon, 2000). The addition of vitamins A, C, and E dietary supplements into the diet of cancer treatment patients, who were eating a balanced diet of fruits and vegetables, negatively impacted their radio- and chemotherapies (Seifried et al., 2003). High consumption of tomatoes and tomato products has been linked to reduced carcinogenesis, particularly prostate cancer, and has been thought to be due to the presence of lycopene, the pigment responsible for the red color of tomato fruit (Giovannucci, 2002). Although the use of tomato powder effectively reduced prostate carcinogenesis in rats, supplements containing lycopene, which is the primary active ingredient in tomatoes, had no effect (Boileau et al., 2003). Although epidemiological evidence suggests associations between dietary and circulating carotenoids and reduced risk of cancer, clinical supplementation trials have returned null findings, or even evidence of harmful effects, from beta-carotene supplementation in certain populations such as smokers and asbestos-exposed subjects (van Helden et al., 2009; Tanaka et al., 2012).

3 Effect of Postharvest Handling and Processing on Phytochemicals

Fruits and vegetables show great variation in both the content and the composition of their phytochemicals due to genetic and environmental factors. The climate, season, temperature, and rainfall, as well as cultural practices, processing techniques (e.g. frying, steaming, and boiling), and storage conditions, are all important factors affecting phytochemical content in fruits and vegetables and derived food products (Cartea and Velasco, 2008; Rodriguez-Amaya et al., 2008).

Initial phytochemical content in fruits and vegetables is affected by the particular cultivar, soil type, production system, and weather conditions (temperature, humidity, daylight hours, rain, etc.) during growth. Fruits and vegetables are most attractive and health promoting when harvested at their peak maturity, and their phytochemicals can be negatively affected when these are harvested before or after their ideal stage of ripeness.

Chemical and physical changes occur in fruits and vegetables after harvest, due to various internal and external factors. Changes in the composition of phytochemicals from harvest to consumption depend to a certain degree on the particular phytochemical, the commodity, and the postharvest handling, storage, and cooking conditions. Phytochemicals are very susceptible to deterioration during postharvest, due to fungal decay, physiological disorders, pests, mechanical injury, over-ripeness, and inadequate temperature and relative humidity during storage or transport, which may result in great losses in quality components including phytochemical contents. Fresh fruits and vegetables ideally should be consumed soon after harvest, or postharvest handling conditions must be controlled properly such that phytochemical degradation does not occur.

In general, several phytochemicals such as water-soluble nutrients (vitamins C and B and the phenolic compounds) are degraded by processing treatments and may be leached into cooking water or the canning medium. Fat-soluble phytochemicals such as vitamins A and E and the carotenoids may be released from their cellular matrices by thermal, freezing, high-pressure, or other preservation treatments. Because they have been extracted to a greater degree by the treatment, it is possible to analyze them more readily, and it may appear that there is an increase. However, it is not likely that processing methods cause a real increase in phytochemical concentration; rather, they may make phytochemicals more detectable and perhaps more available biologically.

4 Research and Development

Research on diverse aspects of phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables is very active in most parts of the world. Active research is still trying to determine the relationship between the phytochemicals consumed and their bioavailability – the amount of material absorbed into the body after consumption.

In the determination of antioxidant activity, for example, a growing number of researchers are investigating antioxidant effects using human, animal, or cell-line

models rather than relying merely on instrumental determination of model systems that may or may not simulate what happens in the body.

Research indicates that as long as fresh products undergo minimal storage and are handled at proper temperatures and other conditions, they are usually superior to processed products in terms of the content of some phytochemicals such as vitamin C. However, vitamin C degrades rapidly after harvest, and this degradation continues during storage. For example, vitamin C losses in some vegetables stored at 4 °C for 7 days can range from 15% to almost 80%. Cold storage (refrigeration) slows deterioration of phytochemicals. The higher the temperature and the lower the relative humidity in storage, and the longer the storage duration, the faster and higher the losses of phytochemicals, especially pigments and some vitamins. Phenolic compounds generally decline with storage of fresh fruits and vegetables and as a result of canning and blanching (Howard et al., 1999). Compared to the water-soluble vitamins, carotenoids such as lycopene appear to be relatively stable during processing, storage, and cooking, but more information is still needed on these components. Fiber is relatively insensitive to thermal processing or freezing.

Considering the increasing demands of consumers for healthy products, there is a need for emerging and effective technologies to prevent the deterioration of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. Therefore it is important to evaluate the effect of new treatments and technologies on the phytochemical status of these important food commodities, because phytochemical content and bioactivity must be considered to be major quality attributes. It is also important to determine the changes in the individual contribution of the various phytochemical compounds to the total antioxidant capacity of fruits and vegetables under the different postharvest handling conditions used. Addition of exogenous phytochemicals as natural preservatives for fresh and processed fruits and vegetables, with antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, is another interesting area for future research.

As research on phytochemicals increases, the inclusion on the product label of phytochemical content and antioxidant capacity information should be considered necessary, in order to provide more information for consumers on the health components that contribute to the overall quality of fresh fruits and vegetables. With this information, consumers will be aware of the effect of treatments and storage on the bioactive compound content in fruits and vegetables, and will be able to choose the healthiest products.

5 The Book

This book is the second edition of Fruit and Vegetable Phytochemicals: Chemistry, Nutritional Value and Stability, edited by Laura A. de la Rosa, Emilio Álvarez-Parrilla and Gustavo González-Aguilar and published in 2010. This second edition contains more than 70 chapters in two volumes, written by almost 200 authors from 25 countries. The chapters cover diverse aspects of chemistry and biological functions, the influence of postharvest technologies, analysis methods, and important phytochemicals in more than 30 fruits and vegetables.

The book should provide readers with a comprehensive and cutting-edge description of the metabolism and molecular mechanisms associated with the beneficial effects of phytochemicals for human health, in a manner that is useful not only to students and teachers but also to researchers, physicians, and the public in general.

References

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Boileau TW, Liao Z, Kim S, Lemeshow S, Erdman JW, Clinton SK. 2003. Prostate carcinogenesis in N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (NMU)-testosterone-treated rats fed tomato powder, lycopene, or energy-restricted diets. J Natl Cancer Inst, 95:1578–1586.

Cartea ME, Velasco P. 2008. Glucosinolates in Brassica foods: bioavailability in food and significance for human health. Phytochem Rev, 7:213–229.

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Part I

Chemistry and Biological Functions

1

The Contribution of Fruit and Vegetable Consumption to Human Health

Elhadi M. Yahia,¹* María Elena Maldonado Celis,² and Mette Svendsen³

¹Faculty of Natural Sciences, Autonomous University of Querétaro, Avenida de las Ciencias s/n, Juriquilla, Querétaro, Mexico

²Nutrition and Dietetic School, University of Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia

³Section for Preventive Cardiology, Centre of Preventive Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Norway

1.1 Introduction

Increasing incidences of some chronic diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases (Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases), especially in industrial countries, have raised awareness regarding the importance of diet (Erbersdobler, 2003). It is estimated that one-third of cancer cases and up to half of cardiovascular disease rates are diet related (Goldberg, 1994).

Clinical and epidemiological studies have justified including antioxidants as dietary factors that affect brain function, promote aging, and contribute to the development of neurodegenerative diseases (Parkinson's and Alzheimer's) (Thomas and Beal, 2007). Numerous epidemiological studies have shown an inverse association between fruit and vegetable consumption and chronic diseases including different types of cancer, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases (Gan et al., 2015; IARC, 2008; Devalaraja et al., 2011; Thompson, 2010; Mirmiran et al., 2013; Boeing et al., 2012; Albarracin et al., 2012; Hirayama, 1990; Block et al., 1992; Howe et al., 1992; Steinmetz and Potter, 1991, 1996; World Cancer Research Fund, 1997; Joshipura et al., 2001; Bazzano et al., 2002; Kris-Etherton et al., 2002, Yahia, 2009; Yahia, 2010; Yahia et al., 2011). These studies have shown mounting evidence that people who avoid fruit and vegetables completely, or consume very little, are indeed at increased risk of these diseases. Therefore, interest in the health benefits of fruit and vegetable consumption is increasing. Moreover, interest in understanding the type, number, and mode of action of the different components in fruits and vegetables that confer health benefits is also increasing.

Fruits and vegetables have historically been considered rich sources of some essential dietary micronutrients and of fibers, and more recently they have been recognized as important sources for a wide array of phytochemicals that individually, or in combination, may benefit health (Stavric, 1994; Rechkemmer, 2001; Abuajah et al., 2015). Thus some people have conferred the status of functional foods on fruits and vegetables. There are many biologically plausible reasons for this potentially protective association, including the fact that many of the phytochemicals act as antioxidants.

Phytochemicals present in fruits and vegetables are very diverse, such as ascorbic acid, carotenoids, and phenolic compounds (Liu, 2004; Percival et al., 2006; Syngletary et al., 2005; Yahia et al., 2001a, 2001b; Yahia, 2009; Yahia, 2010; Yahia et al., 2011; Yahia and Ornelas-Paz, 2010). Plant polyphenols are ubiquitous in the diet, with rich sources being tea, wine, fruits, and vegetables; they demonstrate considerable antioxidative activity in vitro which can have important implications for health (Duthie et al., 2000; Wootton-Beard and Ryan, 2011; Sindhi et al., 2013).

Naturally occurring compounds such as phytochemicals, which possess anticarcinogenic and other beneficial properties, are referred to as chemopreventive agents, being classified as blocking and suppressive agents. The blocking agents are based on their antioxidant activity and the capacity to scavenge free radicals. Among the most investigated antioxidant agents against cancer are some vitamins such as C, A, and E; flavonoids and phenolic acids, which account for 60% and 30%, respectively, of dietary (poly)phenolic compounds (Ramos, 2007); and pigments such as carotenoids, chlorophylls, and betalains. Resolution of the potential protective roles of specific antioxidants and other constituents of fruits and vegetables deserves major attention.

Evidence indicates that for the effect of fruit and vegetable consumption on health, the whole may be more than the sum of the parts. Individual components appear to act synergistically, in that the influence of at least some of them is additive.

Consumption of a high fruit and vegetable diet increases antioxidant concentration in blood and body tissues, and potentially protects against oxidative damage to cells and tissues. Olmedilla et al. (2001) described blood concentration of carotenoids, tocopherols, ascorbic acid, and retinol in well-defined groups of healthy non-smokers aged 25–45 years, across a sample of 175 men and 174 women from five European countries (France, Northern Ireland, Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands, and Spain). Analysis was centralized and performed within 18 months. Within gender, vitamin C showed no significant differences between countries. Females in France, Republic of Ireland, and Spain had significantly higher plasma vitamin C concentration than their male counterparts. Serum retinol and α-tocopherol levels were similar, but γ-tocopherol showed great variability, being lowest in Spain and France, and highest in the Netherlands. The provitamin A to non-provitamin A carotenoid ratio was similar among countries, whereas the xanthophylls (lutein, zeaxanthin, and β-cryptoxanthin) to carotenes (α-carotene, β-carotene, and lycopene) ratio was double in southern areas (Spain) compared to northern areas (Northern Ireland and Republic of Ireland). Serum concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin were highest in France and Spain, and β-cryptoxanthin was highest in Spain and the Netherlands. trans-Lycopene tended to be highest in Irish males and lowest in Spanish males, while α-carotene and β-carotene were higher in the French volunteers. Due to the study design, the concentration of carotenoids and vitamins A, C, and E represent physiological ranges achievable by dietary means and may be considered as reference values in the serum of healthy, non-smoking middle-aged subjects from the five European countries. Results suggest that lutein (and zeaxanthin), β-cryptoxanthin, total xanthophylls, γ-tocopherol, and β-tocopherol to γ-tocopherol ratio may be important markers related to the healthy or protective effects of a Mediterranean-like diet.

The epidemiological evidence indicates that avoidance of smoking, increased consumption of fruits and vegetables, and control of infections can have a major effect on reducing rates of several chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease and different types of cancer (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2008; Cuenca-García et al., 2014; Stefani and Rigacci, 2014; Ames et al., 1995; Graham and Mettlin, 1981; Giovanelli, 1999; Liu, 2004; Percival et al., 2006; Syngletary et al., 2005).

The global average for vegetables (based on availability and not including vegetable oils) and fruits consumption is 2.6% and 2.7% of total daily energy intake, respectively. Thus, it is argued that increasing intake from 400 to 800 g/day of fruits and vegetables is a public health strategy of considerable importance for individuals and communities worldwide. Vegetable consumption is highest in North Africa, the Middle East, parts of Asia, the USA, Cuba, and southern Europe. On the other hand, fruit intakes are highest in some parts of Africa, the Middle East, southern Europe, and Oceania, and lowest in other parts of Africa and Asia (WCRF/AICR, 2007).

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a daily intake of more than 400 g per person daily, and health authorities worldwide promote high consumption of fruits and vegetables (Yahia, 2009; Yahia, 2010; Yahia et al., 2011). Many of the putative chemoprotective phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables are colored (due to different pigments). The guidelines are based on selecting one serving daily of fruits and vegetables from each of seven color classes (red, yellow-green, red-purple, orange, orange-yellow, green, white-green) so that a variety of phytochemicals is consumed.

Several promotional campaigns to increase fruit and vegetable consumption have been proposed by developed countries as the USA (5 a Day, now Fruits & Veggies), Australia (Go for 2&5), Canada (Canada's Food Guide to Healthy Eating), United Kingdom (Food Dudes), Denmark (6 a Day), New Zealand (5+ a Day). Some results of these campaigns in the USA between 2004 and 2009 showed that average consumption of fruits and vegetables for adults was 1.8 cups/day, and that for children less than 6 years old and children 6 to 12 years old consumption increased 4% and 2%, respectively, for adult females 18 to 44 years old it increased by 1%, and for adult males it decreased by 7–9% (Produce for Better Health Foundation, 2010). The survey of the Australian campaign on Western adults after three years through the Health Department's Health and Wellbeing Surveillance System showed a mean increase of 0.2 servings/day of fruits and 0.6 servings/day of vegetables (Pollard et al., 2008). In Denmark, in contrast to the results obtained in the USA and Australia, the Danish National Survey of Dietary Habits and Physical Activity between 1995 and 2004 showed an increase in consumption by the 4- to 10-year-old group of 29% vegetables and 58% fruits, and by the 11- to 75-year-old group of 41% fruits and 75% vegetables (Danish National Centre for Social Research, 2005). In Norway, delivery of fruits free of charge to children at school increased the daily intake of fruit from one to two portions between 2001 and 2008 (Bere et al., 2010).

A study by Johnston et al. (2000) during 1994–1996, a continuing survey of food intakes by individuals, was used to examine the types of fruits and vegetables consumed in the USA. The sample populations consisted of 4806 men and women (25–75 years old) who completed two non-consecutive 24 hour recalls, consuming 3.6 ± 2.3 servings of vegetables and 1.6 ± 2.0 servings of fruit daily. Iceberg lettuce, tomatoes, French fried potatoes, bananas, and orange juice were the most commonly consumed fruits and vegetables, accounting for nearly 30% of all fruits and vegetables consumed. The most popular items, lettuce and tomatoes, were consumed by 39–42% of the sample population during the reporting period. Fewer respondents (16–24%) consumed French fried potatoes, bananas, or orange juice. Only 3% of the sample consumed broccoli during the reporting period. White potato consumption averaged 1.1 servings daily, with French fried potatoes representing 0.4 serving. Tomato products consumption averaged 0.5 serving daily, dark green vegetable consumption averaged 0.2 serving daily, and citrus, berries, or melon consumption amounted to nearly 0.8 serving daily. These data have indicated that people in the USA are consuming more fruits and vegetables compared to previous years but that dark green and cruciferous vegetable intake is low. Many studies suggest that consumption of fruit and vegetables is still low in many countries (Naska et al., 2000; Agudo et al., 2002; USDA, 2003; Blanck et al., 2008), and efforts are still needed to increase it. This chapter will highlight the potential health benefits of fruit and vegetable consumption on several diseases, as well as the nutritional and health importance of some fruits and vegetables.

1.2 Effect of Consumption of Fruit and Vegetables on Some Diseases

1.2.1 Cancer

According to the study of Doll and Peto (1981) based on epidemiological studies, an average of 35% of the death rate for cancer is associated with nutritional factors. It has been proposed that absence in the diet of compounds possessing cancer preventing properties, such as fruits and vegetables, is responsible partially for this situation.

In 2007, the World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF/AICR, 2007) published its second expert report in which they found, from cohort studies since the mid 1990s, that evidence of protection by vegetables or fruits consumption is convincing. Non-starchy vegetables probably protect against cancers of the mouth, pharynx, and larynx, and those of the esophagus and stomach. There is limited evidence suggesting that they also protect against cancers of the nasopharynx, lung, colorectum, ovary, and endometrium. Allium vegetables probably protect against stomach cancer. Garlic (an Allium vegetable, commonly classed as a herb) probably protects against colorectal cancer. Fruits in general probably protect against cancers of the mouth, pharynx, and larynx, and of the esophagus, lung, and stomach. There is limited evidence suggesting that fruits also protect against cancers of the nasopharynx, pancreas, liver, and colorectum (WCRF/AICR, 2007). The chemopreventive properties of vegetables, fruits, and pulses against some type of cancers is attributed to some micronutrients considered markers for consumption of vegetables, fruits, and pulses (legumes). For example, foods containing carotenoids probably protect against cancers of the mouth, pharynx, larynx, and lung; whereas evidence of consumption of foods containing beta-carotene and lycopene suggests that they probably protect against esophageal and prostate cancer, respectively. On the other hand, in spite of the well-described quercetin mechanisms of action, there is limited evidence suggesting that consumption of foods containing this flavonoid, such as apples, tea, and onions, protects against lung cancer (WCRF/AICR, 2007). Epidemiological evidence of cancer protective effects of fruits and vegetables, as well as the basic mechanisms by which phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables can protect against cancer development, has been previously surveyed by Wargovich (2000). Sometimes it was difficult to associate total fruit and vegetable consumption and cancer prevention; rather, there was an association with some specific families or types of fruits and vegetables (Steinmetz and Potter, 1996; Voorips et al., 2000). For example, a high consumption of tomato or tomato-based products is consistently associated with lower risk of different cancer types as shown by meta-analysis, with the highest evidence found for lung, prostate, and stomach cancer (Giovannucci, 1999). The metabolism of chemical carcinogens has been shown to be influenced by dietary constituents (Wattenberg, 1975). Naturally occurring inducers of increased activity of the microsomal mixed-function oxidase system are present in plants; cruciferous vegetables are particularly potent in this regard. From Brussels sprouts, cabbage, and cauliflower, three indoles with inducing activity have been identified: indole-3-acetonitrile, indole-3-carbinol, and 3,3′-diindolylmethane. A second type of dietary constituent which affects the microsomal mixed-function oxidase system is added: phenolic antioxidants, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), and butylated hydroxytoluene. The feeding of BHA has resulted in microsomal changes in the