Handbook of Milk of Non-Bovine Mammals

THE ONLY SINGLE-SOURCE GUIDE TO THE LATEST SCIENCE, NUTRITION, AND APPLICATIONS OF ALL THE NON-BOVINE MILKS CONSUMED AROUND THE WORLD

Featuring contributions by an international team of dairy and nutrition experts, this second edition of the popular Handbook of Milk of Non-Bovine Mammals provides comprehensive coverage of milk and dairy products derived from all non-bovine dairy species.

Milks derived from domesticated dairy species other than the cow are an essential dietary component for many countries around the world. Especially in developing and under-developed countries, milks from secondary dairy species are essential sources of nutrition for the humanity. Due to the unavailability of cow milk and the low consumption of meat, the milks of non-bovine species such as goat, buffalo, sheep, horse, camel, Zebu, Yak, mare and reindeer are critical daily food sources of protein, phosphate and calcium. Furthermore, because of hypoallergenic properties of certain species milk including goats, mare and camel are increasingly recommended as substitutes in diets for those who suffer from cow milk allergies. This book:

• Discusses key aspects of non-bovine milk production, including raw milk production in various regions worldwide
• Describes the compositional, nutritional, therapeutic, physio-chemical, and microbiological characteristics of all non-bovine milks
• Addresses processing technologies as well as various approaches to the distribution and consumption of manufactured milk products
• Expounds characteristics of non-bovine species milks relative to those of human milk, including nutritional, allergenic, immunological, health and cultural factors.
• Features six new chapters, including one focusing on the use of non-bovine species milk components in the manufacture of infant formula products

Thoroughly updated and revised to reflect the many advances that have occurred in the dairy industry since the publication of the acclaimed first edition, Handbook of Milk of Non-Bovine Mammals, 2nd Edition is an essential reference for dairy scientists, nutritionists, food chemists, animal scientists, allergy specialists, health professionals, and allied professionals.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Wiley
• Release date: May 16, 2017
• ISBN: 9781119110309

Book preview

List of Contributors

Bénédicte Coudé

Center for Dairy Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

Shane V. Crowley

School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland

El-Sayed Ibrahim El-Agamy

Department of Dairy Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Alexandria, Egypt

Leorges M. Fonseca

School of Veterinary Medicine, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil

Hallvard Gjøstein

Department of Animal and Aquaculture Sciences, Agricultural University of Norway, As, Norway

George F.W. Haenlein

Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA

Shenghua He

Department of Food Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology,

Harbin, Heilongjiang, PR China

Øystein Holand

Department of Animal and Aquaculture Sciences, Agricultural University of Norway, As, Norway

Luis A. Jiménez-Maroto

Center for Dairy Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

Mark Johnson

Center for Dairy Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

Samir Kalit

Department of Dairy Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

Alan L. Kelly

School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland

M. Mohamed H. Khan

Department of Extension Education, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences

University, Chennai, India

John A. Lucey

Department of Food Science and Wisconsin Center for Dairy Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

Ying Ma

Department of Food Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology,

Harbin, Heilongjiang, PR China

Mariana Marques de Almeida

Senior Animal Scientist, Breeding Advisor and Cheese Specialist, Sheep and Goat, Ms. J and Co, Monroe, WI, USA

Golfo Moatsou

Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Laboratory of Dairy Research, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

Mian Anjum Murtaza

Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan

Mauri Nieminen

Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, Reindeer Research Station, Kaamanen, Finland

James A. O'Mahony

School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland

Ajit J. Pandya

Department of Dairy Processing and Operations, Faculty of Dairy Science, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, India

Young W. Park

Agricultural Research Station,

Fort Valley State University, Fort Valley, GA, USA

Adjunct Professor Emeritus, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA

Pat Polowsky

Center for Dairy Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

Elisabetta Salimei

Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy

David L. Thomas

Professor Emeritus, Sheep Management and Genetics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

William L. Wendorff

Professor Emeritus, Department of Food Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison,

Madison, WI, USA

1

Overview of Milk of Non-Bovine Mammals (Second Edition)

Young W. Park,¹ George F.W. Haenlein,² and W.L. Wendorff ³

¹ Agricultural Research Station, Fort Valley State University, Fort Valley, GA, USA

² Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA

³ Department of Food Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

1 Introduction

The First Edition of Handbook of Milk of Non-Bovine Mammals, compiled information on the availability, composition, and technology of milk produced from domestic non-bovine mammals throughout the world, has been a success, so much so that it has been translated into two additional languages, Spanish and Chinese. Therefore, a Second Edition has been recommended by Blackwell-Wiley Publishers. We welcome the addition of W.L. Wendorff to the editor team, who is an international authority on cheese technology and dairy sheep besides representing the leading US dairy state Wisconsin. We also welcome several new expert co-author contributors: Mariana Marques de Almeida from Portugal, Golfo Moatso from Greece, Samir Kalit from Croatia, Elizabetta Salimei from Italy, Ying Ma and Shenghua He from China, Leorges M. Fonseca from Brazil, Benedicte Coude from France, Mian Murtaza from Pakistan, Shane Crowley from Ireland, David Thomas, John Lucey, Mark A. Johnson, and Pat Polowsky from Wisconsin, USA.

The First Edition of Handbook of Milk of Non-Bovine Mammals, published in 2006, covered the eight domestic non-bovine milk-producing species: goats, sheep, buffalo, mare, camel, yak, reindeer, human, as well as sow, llama, and other minor species. This Second Edition, after reviewing and updating the First Edition has added the milk of donkeys, zebu, and mithun species. Since 2006 much new information from research with these species has become available and two significant new publications from the international Food and Agriculture Organization in Rome, Italy (Kukovics, 2016; Muehlhoff, Bennett, and McMahon, 2013), have added emphasis on the importance of non-bovine domestic species for providing people in areas of difficult climate and geological conditions with essential nutrition and sustainance. There is huge scope for developing other dairy species … and that alpaca, donkey, moose, reindeer and yak milk should be used to counteract high cow milk prices … in the developing world (Muehlhoff, Bennett, and McMahon, 2013) has been stated in this latest authoritative FAO publication.

Dairy goats in particular have led in increasing numbers (66% during the last 20 years worldwide versus 14% for dairy cattle), because they are profitable for poor households by valorizing low quality forage, tolerate water shortage, and enhance rangeland biodiversity (Kukovics, 2016). Non-bovine commercial dairy products mean the reality that in many parts of the world the Western ideal milk-producing cow needs help from other domestic mammals, which are better adapted to adverse conditions of climate and geological environmental conditions. The knowledge of their productivity and composition of their products has not been published much in the Western world and non-Western scientists working with these mammals have not been heard much in the English literature. This Handbook, however, aspires to amend this situation by focusing on these other important milk-producing domestic mammals, the value of their products, and their future potential. As the FAO book stated, there is huge scope for developing other dairy species … (Muehlhoff, Bennett, and McMahon, 2013).

It has also been learnt that the Nordic countries, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, and Greenland have invested $112 million for 2015–2018 in four new interdisciplinary Centers of Excellence to improve and develop animal products more and better for human nutrition and health in those adverse arctic regions of the world in order to sustain their human populations (Nordforsk, 2005). This is in addition to a research program by the University of Alaska at Fairbanks with reindeer in cooperation with the California Polytechnic Institute (Alaska, 2014).

As consumers in modern societies are seeking for diversified, sophisticated, and nutritious foods, more and more people in developing and developed countries have an interest in knowing about the composition and constituents in dairy products as they relate to human health (Campbell and Marshall, 1975; Smith, 1985; Park and Haenlein, 2006). Not many people paid much attention or knew much about good and bad types of fat and fatty acids until recently. Today's nutrition labels on food products indicate levels not only of protein, fat, carbohydrates, sodium, calcium, and vitamins but also of such special ingredients as saturated, unsaturated, omega-3, conjugated, and trans-fatty acids. This open knowledge leads to interest into which dairy products may be superior to others and which animal feeding system, such as pasturing versus barn feeding, or which animal species produces a more suitable or preferable human food to others. In terms of milk for infants or sick patients, they need to know which milk is closest to human milk and best for babies, which milk creates less allergies, which one is better tolerated by people with gastrointestinal ailments, which dairy product causes no lactose intolerance symptoms, or which species of milk and dairy products have better digestibility (Park and Haenlein, 2006).

2 Evolution of the Bovine and Non-bovine Dairy Industry

Throughout history, in search of socioeconomically feasible and nutritionally superior sources of food, man has domesticated some milk-producing dairy species, and selected and bred them to produce large volumes of milk in excess of the necessary amounts needed to nourish the animal's own offspring. This surplus production of milk beyond nourishing the young has become the foundation of the modern dairy industry. In North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, the dairy industry is one of the most integral enterprises and important national economies among all agricultural production businesses (Park and Haenlein, 2006).

Even though the dairy cow has been the predominant domesticated animal species for dairy production in developed countries, the goat, sheep, water buffalo, yak, camel, mare, reindeer, as well as some other minor mammalian species have been domesticated, kept, and bred for milk production in regions of the world where the difficult environment required special adaptation, and for which many of the non-bovine mammals are better suited (Park and Haenlein, 2006).

The knowledge on anatomy, histology, physiology, and biochemistry of milk component synthesis and their secretory processes in the mammary gland is essential for the efficient production, maintenance, and utilization of milk for human consumption. Greater understanding of this will provide dairy producers with the integral and necessary capacity to improve management and environmental conditions of their dairy animals for higher efficiency, greater quality, and larger volumes of milk production. Such knowledge would also give dairy producers opportunities for affecting the composition of milk to meet more functionally the nutrition and health needs of people (Park and Haenlein, 2006).

Milk is one of the most nutritious natural foods and has been a basic component of the human diet since early history. Milk drawn from the lacteal glands is highly perishable and is adversely affected by improper practices of feeding and handling of the animals, handling of milk during and after milking, cooling, transportation, pasteurization, processing, packaging, processing equipment, and storage (Le Jaouen, 1987; Peters, 1990; Park, 2010). Through understanding of the basic science of lactation in domesticated mammals, the milk production volume and quality can be maximized for effective utilization and processing of milk products for human consumption.

Western animal science has demonstrated and developed tremendous genetic resources in dairy cows; where 50 years ago they produced about 12 kg of milk per day today many have evolved through genetic selection to produce 50 kg of milk per day. Likewise Western dairy sheep and dairy goats have evolved from producing 1 kg of milk per day to as much as 10 kg of milk per day during the last 50 years (Haenlein, 2007). This is the challenge to the developing world dairy science to which this Handbook wants to help catch up with the most up-to-date knowledge and to recognize scientists in the developing world. Overall there are three major challenges facing progress in non-bovine dairying:

The size and metabolic activity of the mammary gland must increase through genetic selection, especially in mares, donkeys, camels, and reindeer.

The size of the teats and their placement on the udder must become more practical for manual and machine milking procedures, especially in dairy sheep.

The milk let-down reflex via the oxytocin hormone release must become habituated to the human presence and their stimulation without the need to have a calf or foal present.

3 Composition and Secretion of Milk of Minor Species

The milk composition data of at least 194 mammalian species have been identified in a comprehensive review (Oftedal, 1984), while relatively few studies on non-domestic species were found to be careful and reliable. Only 55 species including domesticated mammals had systematic data for all lactation stages. It was shown that much of the available information, especially on wild species, was from opportunistic situations, in which the effects of stage of lactation, compromised maternal or infant health, and sampling bias could not be tested (Oftedal and Iverson, 1995).

The constituents of milk are produced by the epithelial cells of alveoli in two ways: synthesis and diffusion. Diffusion is carried out directly from blood (Park et al., 2013). Even if the osmotic pressure is the same for milk and blood, markedly different compositions exist between the two physiological body fluids. Milk proteins are mainly caseins, at least in ruminants, while the principal proteins in blood plasma are albumins and globulins. In addition, milk contains more sugar (lactose), fat (lipids), calcium, phosphorus, and potassium, but often less protein, sodium, and chlorine than blood (Swenson, 1975; Park and Haenlein, 2006).

Lactose and casein are two characteristic components of milk, besides fat, minerals, and vitamins. Even though the composition of milk is influenced by genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors, the amounts of the major and minor constituents in milk vary genetically substantially between species. Many of the rapidly growing species, such as the rabbit and rat, have high protein contents in their milk, but the correlated relationships between rates of reaching maturity and levels of protein in milk are not consistently linear. In general, milk of marine mammals such as dolphins, seals, whales, and polar bears contain a high fat content (Swenson, 1975; Park and Haenlein, 2006). The most constant component in milk is lactose, which is found between 3 and 7% in mid-lactation milk of different species. Among marsupials, a class just below mammals but also providing milk to their young inside their pouch, the kangaroo milk contains pentoses instead of lactose, as well as proteins and other nitrogenous compounds, which are not usually associated with mammalian milk (Bolliger and Pascoe, 1953; Park and Haenlein, 2006).

A summary of comparative milk composition of domesticated and some wild mammals is presented in Table 1.1. These values are average figures and can be used only for general comparisons between species. Many data in the table, especially for non-domesticated species, are based on few analyses and have little information about the stage of lactation, when the milk samples were taken. There can even be significant differences in the composition of milk between different glands of the same animal, and substantial variations do occur diurnally and from day to day (Park and Haenlein, 2006).

Table 1.1 Gross composition (%) of milk from domesticated and some wild mammals.

aMarsupial.

bCA is California.

Source: Park and Haenlein (2006). Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.

The onset of copious milk secretion (lactogenesis) occurs concomitantly with parturition in most mammalian species. Lactogenesis takes place in two stages: the first prepares the mammary glands for milk secretion and this usually occurs some time in later pregnancy. The second stage is the onset of milk secretion at the time of parturition (Hartmann, 1973; Fleet et al., 1975; Park et al., 2013).

In the cow, lactogenesis coincides with parturition (Peaker and Linzell, 1975). In the rat, milk is secreted into the mammary ducts 4 hours prior to parturition (Kuhn, 1977). On the other hand, lactogenesis is delayed for 48 or 72 hours post-partum in humans and guinea pigs, which may be attributable to the slow post-partum decrease in progesterone levels in the two species (Neville, 1983).

Milk ejection occurs at the teats of the mammary glands by the stimulation of the suckling young or by the milking machine via a series of physiological and hormonal reflex mechanisms. Hormones have definite influences on the initiation of the milk secretion process (Schmidt, 1971; Park et al., 2013). The continued secretion, the amount of milk produced, and the composition of milk is controlled by several hormonal and nutritional factors within the animal. In dairy cows and goats, somatotrophin and thyroxine increase the level of milk production (Schmidt, 1971; Swenson, 1975), which has to be removed periodically in order to have continued secretion of milk. However, secretion of milk, that is, its removal, from the mammary gland usually requires the stimulation of the nervous system through the young's suckling or manual pre-milking procedures. If the milk is not evacuated from the glands, the secretory process declines and secretion stops with a complete involution of the secretory tissues. Milk secretion proceeds by a physiological feedback system. The nervous stimulus induces the release through the blood stream of the hormone oxytocin from the pituitary gland in the brain, which causes the myoepithelial cells surrounding the milk-producing alveoli to contract, thus forcing the milk from the alveoli into the udder ducts and cisterns (Schmidt, 1971; Park et al., 2013).

4 Features of this Second Edition of Handbook of Milk of Non-Bovine Mammals

Due to the paucity and severe shortages of technical and scientific literature in the field of milk and dairy products of non-bovine dairy species, the publication of the First Edition of Handbook of Milk of Non-Bovine Mammals was a great success. The worldwide reception of the First Edition by the readers and scientific audience and the demands of updating new research data and reports in the field for the past decade have necessitated the publication of this Second Edition.

The First Edition was published with 12 main chapters with 5 subchapters in the goat milk chapter and 3 subchapters in the buffalo milk chapter. For the Second Edition, two more chapters have been added to expand from 12 chapters to 14 chapters. Brief summaries of highlights of each of the 14 chapters in this book are as follows:

Chapter 1. Overview of Milk of Non-Bovine Mammals. This chapter describes the general overview of the contents of this Second Edition and the needs and justification for this publication.

Chapter 2. Goat Milk has been written as four subchapters, with one subchapter on flavor characteristics separated to make an independent chapter as Chapter 12 to cover flavor and sensory characteristics of non-bovine species milk. This goat milk chapter has been updated to include recent information on quality maintenance to limit the potential for lipolysis on the smaller volumes of raw milk toward the end of lactation. Goat milk has been the most available milk, for beverage milk sales, throughout the world. Cheese is the primary manufactured product from goat milk consumed in large volumes around the world.

Chapter 3. Sheep Milk has been expanded to three subchapters, similar to Goat Milk, to allow for a wide discussion on increasing sheep milk production. Sheep will generally yield about one-third of the volume of milk that goats produce on a daily basis. Therefore the research emphasis on dairy sheep is for increased production.

Chapter 4. Buffalo Milk has been updated with three subchapters, as had been written in the First Edition. In terms of the volume of world milk supply, buffalo is the second highest milk producing dairy species, so recent scientific progress and literature on the production and utilization of buffalo milk have been updated and expanded.

Chapter 5. Mare and Donkey Milk has been expanded to cover not only the updated discussion on mare milk but also donkey milk. This chapter has been updated for horse milk production and processing, and animal management, as well as nutritional, functional, and health-promoting characteristics in a sustainable and multifunctional dairy chain that would enrich the human diet.

Chapter 6. Camel Milk has added updated reports on camel population, its milk composition, milk enzymes, milk products, immune system, and medicinal properties. Camels support the survival of millions of people in arid and semi-arid regions of the world.

Chapter 7. Yak Milk is produced by one of the world's most remarkable domesticated animals (Poephagus grunniens or Bos grunniens), which thrives in extreme harsh conditions and deprivation while it provides milk and animal products for yak keepers. Recent research data of yak milk composition have been extensively discussed, and its milk products are also included.

Chapter 8. Zebu and Mithun Milk is a new chapter in the Second Edition of the Handbook that covers the livestock from the tropical regions such as the North Eastern Region of India and South America. A zebu (Bos primigenius indicus or Bos indicus or Bos taurus indicus), sometimes known as indicine cattle, humped cattle, or Brahman, is a species or subspecies of domestic cattle originating in South Asia. Zebu are used as draught oxen, as milk, meat, hide, and manure (fuel). Mithun (Bos frontalis) is the gift of rich biodiversity, which is a magnificent domesticated animal of the Bovidae family and is a distant relative of cattle and buffaloes. Mithun milk is found to be suitable for human consumption. The uniqueness of the milk of these two species will be covered in this chapter.

Chapter 9. Reindeer Milk is important for the economy and wellbeing of people in northern Eurasia and taiga regions. This chapter further dissects biological constraints of the production, composition, and potential yield of reindeer milk. Discussions are extended for the potential of establishing a new niche-based milking industry with ecological and economical considerations.

Chapter 10. Sow Milk has been updated with recent reports. Since humans and pigs share similar digestive and physiological systems, knowledge of the mammary growth, physiology, maternal nutrition, and lactogenesis of sow milk and its chemical compositions would be important information applicable to human lactation, nutrition, and health research.

Chapter 11. Other Minor Species Milk of domesticated and wild mammalian species are discussed and updated in this chapter. The current scientific research data on minor species such as moose, elk, musk ox, alpaca, llama, elephant, pinnipeds, and polar bear have been compiled and described.

Chapter 12: Flavor and Sensory Characteristics of Non-Bovine Species Milk and Their Dairy Products discusses the uniqueness of flavor traits and sensory properties of non-bovine species milk and their products. These minor species milk would possess specific components and characteristics that are absent and/or different from those in cow milk.

Chapter 13. Potential Applications of Non-Bovine Mammalian Milk in Infant Nutrition deals with the potential use of non-bovine milk components and the advantages of nutritional sources in the feeding of infants. Although a mother's milk is the most ideal and universally recommended nutrient source for human infants, an alternative is necessary when effective breast-feeding is not possible or practiced. The chosen alternative is an infant milk formula based on bovine milk, but this chapter explores the milk of other species that are closer to the composition of human milk than bovine milk.

Chapter 14. Human Milk is thought to be the best form of nutrition for neonates and infants. This chapter delineates the major premises involved in the current trends of infant feeding, composition, production, and feeding practices of human milk in relation to infant growth, nutrition, and human health.

5 Concluding Remarks

The editors of this Second Edition have assembled expert scientists in the field of non-bovine mammalian species from around the world to contribute to this book, covering domesticated and wild species milks including goat, sheep, buffalo, mare, camel, yak, reindeer, sow, donkey, zebu, mithun, moose, caribou, musk ox, elk, pinniped, polar bear, and human. This book is expected to serve essential textbook or scientific references for dairy scientists, food chemists, nutritionists, allergy specialists, and health professionals. This publication would be an important resource book for master and artisan cheesemakers and dairy plant personnel. As was true of the First Edition, this Second Edition may also be adopted as a textbook for graduate and undergraduate students in food/dairy science.

The editors gratefully acknowledge the invaluable contributions of all chapter authors and co-authors of this work. Furthermore, there is a need to express great gratitude to Blackwell-Wiley Publishers and Mr. David McDade, the Publisher for Food Science, for their understanding and support during sometimes difficult times of the review and updated editing processes of this edition.

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2

Goat Milk

2.1 Production of Goat Milk

Mariana Marques de Almeida¹ and George F.W. Haenlein²

¹ Senior Animal Scientist, Breeding Advisor and Cheese Specialist, Sheep and Goat, Ms. J and Co, Monroe, WI, USA

² Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA

1 Introduction

The goat has been the most maligned domesticated animal and still is in many parts of the world (Rubino and Claps, 1995), partly because of its sometimes offensive odor, especially from the buck, whose odor floats strongly around the premises and can affect the flavor of the doe's milk, if ventilation, milking practices and cooling of the milk are improper or insufficient. For the doe this odor is an aphrodisiac enticing her libido and is part of the buck effect to stimulate sexual activity (Mellado, Olivas, and Ruiz, 2000; Ott, Nelson, and Hixon, 1980).

In recent years it has been convincingly demonstrated that properly milked and cooled goat milk is odor free and hard to distinguish from cow milk in odor and taste (Campbell and Marshall, 1975; Mowlem, 1988). Thus quality goat milk production is not only possible but has made great progress in recent years in dismantling the age-old prejudice by consumers. Today goat milk is of much interest to people and infants in particular with cow milk allergy or gastrointestinal afflictions (Haenlein, 2004; Carvalho et al., 2012; Alferez et al., 2015), and in Western developing countries it is of growing interest to goat cheese connoisseurs and upscale markets and restaurants.

The interest in goat milk yogurt is also growing, although because of the different casein polymorphisms, αs1 and αs2, where αs2 dominates in goat milk, produces a soft curd and has lower yields, while αs1 dominates in cow milk, produces a hard curd and has higher yields, the production of pure goat milk yogurt has had technical difficulties, which have often been overcome by mixed with cow milk, even sheep milk, or other additives to increase firmness (Costa et al., 2015).

The growing interest in goat milk is not only focused on the sustenance of the poor and rural people with small land holdings (Haenlein, 1992) and to educate them of the value and acceptability of goat milk (Adewumi, Lawal-Adebowale, and Adegbemile, 2015), but also as an important super dairy food product with special medical, nutritional, biological, and immunological characteristics (Jandal, 1996). This may be reflected by the phenomenal increase in total goat numbers and especially goat milk production around the world in the recent 20 years (59.7%), and even 40 years (62.4%), outnumbering the increases in people populations worldwide (41.1 and 28.4%, respectively). Even in Africa there has been an increase of 92.1% more goats and 94.7% more goat milk production versus 63.1% more people, and in Asia (54.2 and 73.1% versus 27.2%) (Tables 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3).

Table 2.1 Trends of populations of goats and people during the last 40 years.

aMediterranean region: Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Malta, Cyprus, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia-Montenegro, Albania, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia, Libya, Algeria, and Morocco (see Table 2.2*).

Source: FAO (1973, 1974, 1993, 2013).

Table 2.2 Mediterranean region goat populations, goat milk production and trends during the last 20 years.

aMT, metric tons.

Source: FAO (1993, 2013).

Table 2.3 Trends of goat milk production during the last 20 years in countries with significant amounts of goat milk outside of the Mediterranean region.

aMT, metric tons.

bNo data available for Oceania.

Source: FAO (1993, 2013).

Another severe prejudice has long existed among forestry officials claiming goats are responsible for deforestation and desertification, because of their feeding preference in browsing bushes, twigs, barks, and even climbing tree limbs (Devendra, 1990; French, 1970; Mowlem, 1988; Solanki, 1994) (Figure 2.1). However, it has been demonstrated that human management practices of overstocking and free grazing without a shepherd are to blame, and that responsible feeding of harvested tree leaves and pods is a more environmentally friendly alternative, especially since goats tolerate tannin and phenolic compounds in leaves well, while cattle, sheep, and horses do not (Ndlovu and Sibanda, 1996; Silanikove et al., 1996; Singh et al., 1996).

Image described by caption.

Figure 2.1 Sure-footed, fearless goats are climbing an 8 m high board-trail to a feeding station, illustrating the ability of goats to climb tree limbs to feed on leaves. Here at the Westmoreland Berry Farm, Virginia, USA, the goats attract visitors, who have fun feeding the goats small amounts of corn kernels hoisted-up in a small bucket to the feeding station above. Source: Photo from Westmoreland Berry Farm, reproduced with permission.

In addition, goats in many parts of the world are successfully used in integrated grazing of mixed herds with cattle and sheep, to clear pastures from brush and tree encroachment, thus saving and improving beef and sheep pasture grazing areas for higher performance per unit of land area, and also to be better protected from predators (Hulet et al., 1989). In areas with traditional migratory or transhumance grazing, the herds were always a mixture of goats, sheep, and some cattle and donkeys. Goats have also been used to provide brush and forest clearance for wildfire control, for example, in California and in Australia (Allan, Holst, and Campbell, 1999; Holst, 1984).

The world total goat milk production was 17 957 000 metric tons (MT) in 2013 (Table 2.3), representing 2.4% of the total world milk production of 747 707 000 MT from cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, and camels combined, but goat milk has increased in Africa (94.7%), Asia (73.1%), Europe (67.9%), North America (19.0%), and South America (16.5%) in the recent 20 years (Table 2.3). The increases in goat milk production are also reflected in the conviction by dairy experts that more goat milk is consumed by more people around the world than any other milk (French, 1970) and that goat milk is a main food item to sustain poor people and small farmers, to prevent mal- and undernutrition, and to aid people with cow milk allergies and gastrointestinal afflictions (Haenlein, 1996a; Mack, 1953; O'Connor, 1994; Park, 1994; Carvalho et al., 2012; Alferez et al., 2015).

Foreign aid project leaders in developing countries have long recognized this and focused their efforts on improving dairy goat breeding, nutrition, milk yields, and hygiene (Haenlein, 2001). Within continents, Africa leads in goat milk production (9.1% of all milk in Africa; 4 184 000 MT), but Asia leads in total annual goat milk tonnage (10 653 000 MT; 3.9% of all milk in Asia), and in total goat numbers (571 million head in 2013; Table 2.1). FAO data do not distinguish between dairy, cashmere, Spanish brush goats, or Angora goats. The latter have significant numbers in some Asian countries, South Africa, Turkey, and in Texas,USA, but data of milk production tonnage can help identify countries with dairy goat populations (Table 2.3).

During the last 20 years the total world goat milk production has increased much beyond that of sheep milk production (17.9 million MT versus 10.1 million MT, respectively) (Haenlein and Wendorff, 2006; FAO, 2013), but this difference probably reflects also the increased demand for fluid milk consumption, while sheep milk is mainly processed into cheeses.

The Mediterranean region with some 24 countries is the major sheep milk production area of the world (Haenlein and Wendorff, 2006) and also leads in goat milk production, which amounted to 2 344 000 and 2 607 000 MT in 1993 and 2013, respectively, and which represents 21 and 15% of all goat milk production worldwide (Table 2.2). However, the goat population in the Mediterranean region only represents 6 and 4%, respectively, of all the world goat population in those years, reflecting a much higher productivity for individual goats than in the rest of the world. In total production, the Mediterranean region produced more goat milk than all of Africa in 1993, while in 2013 Asia and Africa produced more, even more than the Americas and the rest of Europe. North America does not have FAO goat milk data listed. Europe and the Mediterranean region had several important dairy goat countries decreasing in goat population numbers (Table 2.2), Portugal, Spain, Italy, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, and Tunisia. However, only Portugal, Bulgaria, and Greece decreased their goat milk production, while Spain, Albania, and Turkey had increasing milk production with decreasing goat population numbers. Hungary and Lebanon had increasing goat numbers with decreasing milk production. France increased its dairy goat population by 21% and the goat milk production by 33%, being with Spain, Turkey, Greece, and Algeria the leading goat milk producer countries in the Mediterranean region and in Europe. Although Greece presented a decrease between 1993 and 2013 in the number of goat heads and milk production by 21 and 33%, respectively, it is still the country with the highest total goat milk production in the Mediterranean region, followed by France, Spain, and Turkey (Table 2.2). The extraordinary case of The Netherlands (Table 2.3), with a 900% increase in their goat milk production during the last 20 years, from 22 000 to 220 000 MT, becoming one of Europe's biggest goat milk producers (Tables 2.2 and 2.3), had a strong influence on trading with other European countries, changing some of their flows of milk and affecting the European goat milk industry.

2 Milk Production

2.1 Breeds of Goats

The goat is one of the most versatile domestic animals in adaptation to arid and humid, tropical and cold, desert and mountain conditions (Gall, 1991; Quartermain, 1991; Silanikove, 2000), providing people with many important products, such as meat, milk including yogurt and cheese, cashmere, mohair, skins, leather, draught and pack power, and manure for crops and gardens (Gall, 1981; Haenlein and Ace, 1984). Shkolnik, Maltz, and Gordin (1980) studied the adaptation of the small Bedouin goat, weighing between 15 and 25 kg, to arid desert conditions. By providing watering opportunities only every 2 to 4 days, the goat's foraging range was increased greatly. They lost bodyweight during water deprivation, but maintained daily milk yields of up to 2 kg nevertheless.

Mason (1988, 1991) lists 411 goat breeds in his world dictionary of livestock, but only about 31 as primary dairy breeds (Table 2.4). Gall (1996) provides a detailed description and production data of 160 goat breeds based on size of populations, productivity, and unique characteristics. Levels of milk production from surveys in 46 countries around the world are given for 89 goat breeds. Among them are four recognized as high yielding breeds, Alpine, Saanen, Toggenburg, and Nubian, which are also called improver breeds for developing countries (Devendra, 1991). The Swiss breeds, Saanen in particular, have been exported and adapted in many countries, forming new local breeds with often-new names (Mason, 1981).

Table 2.4 Goat breeds with dairy as their primary use.

Source: Mason (1991). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Dairy goat breeds have been classified morphologically into three groups (Mason, 1991) (Table 2.4):

Short, erect ears (Swiss, Spanish, French, and Nordic breeds) or no external ears (LaMancha) (Figure 2.7), and sabre-like horns, although some may be polled (Figures 2.2 to 2.5).

Short ears and outwardly twisted or screw-type horns (Girgentana, Zalawadi) (Figure 2.12) or polled (Figures 2.8, 2.9, 2.11 to 2.13). Horn length may vary from 6 to 28 cm, up to 50 cm in Girgentana, and are longer in males (Mason, 1981).

Long or lop ears with different types of horns (most tropical dairy breeds), and some may also be polled (Figures 2.6, 2.10, 2.14 to 2.16).

Image described by caption.

Figure 2.2 Swiss Saanen goat. Photo courtesy of G.F.W. Haenlein.

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Figure 2.3 American Alpine goat. Photo courtesy of American Dairy Goat Association.

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Figure 2.4 American Oberhasli goat. Photo courtesy of G.F.W. Haenlein.

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Figure 2.5 American Toggenburg goat; note the unique badger face. Photo courtesy of American Dairy Goat Association.

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Figure 2.6 American Nubian goat. Photo courtesy of G.F.W. Haenlein.

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Figure 2.7 American LaMancha goat; note the unique vestigial gopher ear. Photo courtesy of American Dairy Goat Association.

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Figure 2.8 Spanish Murciana-Granadina goat. Photo courtesy of Muñoz and Tejon, 1980, p. 179.

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Figure 2.9 Spanish Malagueña goat. Photo courtesy of Muñoz and Tejon, 1980, p. 168.

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Figure 2.10 Spanish Canaria goat. Photo courtesy of Muñoz and Tejon, 1980, p. 154.

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Figure 2.11 Spanish Guadarrama goat. Photo courtesy of Muñoz and Tejon, 1980, p. 162.

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Figure 2.12 Italian Girgentana goat. Photo courtesy of G.F.W. Haenlein.

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Figure 2.13 Italian Garganica goat. Photo courtesy of G.F.W. Haenlein.

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Figure 2.14 Italian Maltese goat. Photo courtesy of G.F.W. Haenlein.

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Figure 2.15 Egyptian Damascus goat. Photo courtesy of G.F.W. Haenlein.

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Figure 2.16 Indian Jamnapari goat, one of the ancestors of the American Nubian goat; note the extremely long lop ears, Roman nose, and overshot lower jaw. Photo courtesy of G.F.W. Haenlein.

While most dairy sheep breeds vary little in type and appearance (see Chapter 3, Figures 3.1 to 3.6), dairy goat breeds differ markedly, as seen in Figures 2.2 to 2.16. According to the level of milk-producing ability (Table 2.5), success of genetic selection for a superior mammary system, and size of population (Table 2.7), it is appropriate to recognize the original dairy goat breeds in descending order of ranking by countries of origin, as shown below (Devendra and Haenlein, 2003), although admitting that some dairy goat breeds in countries like the UK, France, Germany, Norway, America, Australia, and New Zealand are distinguished by breeding success for

superior type and milk production, but most of these populations are derivatives of imported Swiss, Spanish, or Nubian breeds:

Swiss breeds: Saanen, Alpine, Oberhasli, Toggenburg, Appenzell (Gall, 1996).

Mediterranean breeds:

Spain: Murciana-Granadina, Malagueña, Florida, Guadarrama, Payoya and the Canary Islands breeds: Majorera, Tenerifeña, Palmera (Fernandez et al., 2009).

Italy: Maltese, Jonica, Girgentana, Garganica (Rubino, 1990).

Portugal (Serrana), Greece (Skopelos), Egypt (Nubian – Zaraibi), Syria (Damascus), Turkey (Kilis) (Gall, 1996).

Indian breeds: Jamnapari, Barbari, Beetal, Gohilwadi, Jhakrana, Kutchi, Mehsana, Surti, Zalawadi (Acharya, 1982).

Other Asian and African breeds: Nigerian Dwarf (Gall, 1996).

Table 2.5 Average lactation length, milk yield, and composition of the most important dairy goat breeds.

ana, not available.

Source: CABRAMA (2014), CAPGENE (2015), DAD-IS (2015), Devendra (1991), Devendra and Haenlein (2003), Fernandez et al. (2009), Gall (1996), Haenlein (1996, 2007), Raynal-Ljutovaca et al. (2008), and Park and Haenlein (2010).

Table 2.6 Casein contents (g/liter) in milk from goats of four different genotypes

Source: Ricordeau (1991a). Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.

Table 2.7 Participation in milk recording, artificial insemination, and improvement programs by country and goat breeds.

ana, not available.

Source: DAD-IS (2015).

Leading the world in milk production level, length of lactation, udder type quality, and population size are the four Swiss breeds, Saanen, Alpine, Toggenburg, and Oberhasli (Figures 2.2 to 2.5), followed by the American developed Nubian (Figure 2.6), LaMancha (Figure 2.7), and Sable (ADGA, 2015). Next in value and importance are at least four original Spanish breeds, Murciana-Granadina, Malagueña, Florida, Majorera, and Payoya (Figures 2.8 to 2.11).

Other Mediterranean breeds (Figures 2.12 to 2.15) are producing well under the constraints of their local conditions, but mostly below the leading Spanish and Swiss breeds. The remaining Asian (Figure 2.16) and African breeds including some dwarf and disease-resistant breeds have good potential, but they have not yet been selected and bred due to their low productivity as a result of feeding conditions and lack of the stimulus of breed registry organizations. Most have no known statistics of average lactation length or total yield, only estimates of daily yields.

The Indian Jamnapari is the leading dairy breed in that region and has been exported. It is a uniquely evolved goat and especially adapted to browsing the dominant brush vegetation in its home tract along the Jamna River (Figure 2.16). However, it is handicapped by low-level grazing, when its extremely long twisted ears hang over and cover their eyes, and because its extremely arched Roman nose causes the lower jaw to be usually overshot (carp mouth – brachygnatia), thus making the biting of grass at low-level grazing almost impossible, which appears to be endangering the breed's survival outside its home brush territory (Rout and Haenlein, 2003, personal communication).

The partial (elf ear) or total absence (gopher ear) of the external ear (vestigial ear) (Figure 2.7) is a dominant genetic trait in the American LaMancha breed (P. Sponenberg, 2003, personal communication, COGNOSAG Workshop, 1986) and may also occur in some African breeds. Lop ears are often twisted and can be 35 cm long. Goat breeds are also classified by color of hair, length of hair, color patterns, such as the badger face (Toggenburg) (Figure 2.5), and spotting (Ricordeau, 1991a). Dairy goats may have wattles on their neck, which have been linked genetically to higher prolificacy, and they may have beards in either or both genders.

Polledness (PP or Pp) in dairy goats is due to a dominant gene with recessive sex-altering effects in female and male offspring, resulting in infertile intersexuals or hermaphrodites. All horned offspring (pp) are fertile, while homozygous polled (PP) females are infertile, heterozygous (Pp) females are fertile, homozygous (PP) males are 50% infertile, and heterozygous (Pp) males are fertile. Breeding polled parents (PP or Pp) results in a higher percentage of true male offspring than expected from Mendelian laws of inheritance due to as much as 24% hermaphrodites (Ricordeau, 1991a). It has been concluded that it is not possible to obtain a fertile homozygous polled breed of goats and selection for polledness has a negative effect on the improvement of