Boundary Waters Canoe Area: Eastern Region

By Robert Beymer and Louis Dzierzak

Find your way into the eastern BWCAW via 28 entry points, accessible near Grand Marais, Minnesota, from the Sawbill and Gunflint trails.

The Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (BWCAW) in northeastern Minnesota—over a million acres of wilderness on the US-Canada border—is a magnet for visitors seeking to explore some of the most beautiful waterways in the world. With a canoe or kayak, you can paddle its remote lakes, rivers, waterfalls, forests, and trails. Boundary Waters Canoe Area: Eastern Region by Robert Beymer and Louis Dzierzak helps you select the perfect trip for your schedule, ability, and interests.

This classic guide—along with its companion volume, Boundary Waters Canoe Area: Western Region—has been the trusted source for more than 40 years on where to go in the BWCAW and its 1,000+ lakes. Now fully updated, it’s the bible to the 1,200 miles of canoe routes and 154 miles of portage trails in the wilderness.

The guide describes 28 entry points in the eastern part of the BWCAW—those accessible near Grand Marais, Minnesota, from the Sawbill Trail and the Gunflint Trail. For each entry point, both a short and a long route are described, along with all the information you’ll need to plan a successful trip.

Inside you’ll find:

• Complete trip data, including total distance, time, difficulty, required Fisher maps, and permit and quota requirements
• Day-by-day details, such as number and difficulty of portages and recommended campsites
• Fishing recommendations for surrounding lakes and rivers
• Wise advice on navigation and points of interest
• Added bonus: “Lake Index for Fishing,” covering the 242 lakes that lie on this book’s described routes

• Language: English
• Publisher: Wilderness Press
• Release date: Jul 9, 2009
• ISBN: 9780899976112

Book preview

Boundary Waters Canoe Area: Eastern Region

1st edition 1979

2nd edition 1986

3rd edition 1991

4th edition 2000

5th edition 2009

Copyright © 1979, 1986, 1991, 2000 by Robert Beymer

Copyright © 2009 by Robert Beymer and Louis Dzierzak

Front cover photo copyright © 2009 by Larry Ricker, www.lhrimages.com

Interior photos as credited on p. 250

Locator map: Bart Wright, Lohnes + Wright

Cover design: Lisa Pletka

Text design: Lisa Pletka and Annie Long

Book editor: Cheryl Koehler

ISBN 978-0-89997-461-3

Manufactured in Canada

Published by: Wilderness Press

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Berkeley, CA 94710

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Cover photo: Ogishkemuncie Lake

Frontispiece: Canoe and mist, Spice Lake, just outside of Ogishkemuncie

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, or by any means electronic, mechanical, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher, except for brief quotations used in reviews.

SAFETY NOTICE: Although Wilderness Press and the authors have made every attempt to ensure that the information in this book is accurate at press time, they are not responsible for any loss, damage, injury, or inconvenience that may occur to anyone while using this book. You are responsible for your own safety and health while following the canoe routes described here. Always check local conditions, know your own limitations, and consult a map.

Acknowledgments

Abook like this could never have been written without the help and encouragement of many people. Foremost are those with whom I have paddled during these many years. While I stepped off portage trails, paused to take notes, backtracked on lakes to seek a desired photograph, or paddled and portaged out of the way to investigate some unknown territory, the patience of my companions was (and still is) certainly appreciated.

Long before the idea for this book ever entered my head, my father, the Scoutmaster, introduced me to the joys of camping experiences while my mother, the English teacher, always encouraged me to write about those experiences. Throughout the years since the publication of my first book in 1978, U.S. Forest Service personnel were quite helpful in answering my questions and supplying statistical data included in this and previous editions.

When finding the time for research could have been a serious obstacle, my employers (formerly the Eddie Bauer company and most recently the State of Minnesota) granted me summer leave to explore the Wilderness. Canoes were loaned for research trips at no charge by the Eddie Bauer company, Lowe Industries, Piragis Northwoods Company, and Hill’s Canoe Outfitting. The W.A. Fisher Company supplied the maps used for most of my research, while Chuckwagon Foods supplied the trail food at a discounted price for many of my earlier trips. Most of all, I thank my wife for her steadfast support and encouragement—and for not divorcing me when I spent $200 on my first electric typewriter at a time early in our life together when funds were extremely tight!

—Robert Beymer

June 2000

Acknowledgments

Robert Beymer’s Boundary Waters Canoe Area books have become classics among paddlers. Copies get passed from experienced paddler to family members or friends who are preparing for their first trip. The route descriptions can generate hours of intense debate about the best way to go.

I make my living writing about outdoor recreation and I was honored when I asked to update Beymer’s books. That excitement was quickly tempered by the daunting task ahead of me. Beymer spent 30 years accumulating intimate knowledge of every entry point, portage, and campsite described within.

My role is not to recreate his steps, but to bring current information to his vivid descriptions. Since the last edition, the BWCA has seen a rare windstorm flatten thousands of acres of wilderness and major forest fires fueled by the debris left behind. Rules and regulations, registration procedures, and fees have changed over time.

Paddlers buying the books to replace the ones they gave away will notice one significant change. The popularity rankings for each entry point have been deleted from this version. Every entry point and route has something to offer. Over time, readers can build their own personal popularity rankings.

Writing is a solitary endeavor, but many people stand behind the words on these pages. Larry Ricker, Brent Reimnitz, and Bill Seeley contributed the photographs that offer a glimpse of the beauty the BWCA offers.

Steve Freeman and Adam Amato, moderators of BWCA.com, introduced me to the forum’s members and shared their valuable resources with me. David Bintzler, of quietjourney.com, introduced me to a group of passionate paddlers with strong opinions.

Kristina Reichenbach, public affairs officer, Superior National Forest answered a flurry of questions about rules, regulations, and the impact of recent fires on the BWCA. Her advice, to always call ahead to learn about current conditions at your selected entry point, should be followed by every paddler reading this book.

Ian Pinegar, Byran Kegler, Bruce Conley, Bryan Whitehead, and Steve Rosengren shared their personal BWCA paddling experiences to help update specific route descriptions. Bert Heep and Drew Brockett, of Piragis Northwoods Company, also offered thoughts about routes.

Mark Leese, of W. A. Fisher Company, provided a current set of maps for me to study. Fisher maps are mentioned in every route description. Big Agnes, Black Diamond, Sierra Designs, and Marmot provided tents to keep me dry, warm, and comfortable.

Thanks to Roslyn Bullas, editor of Wilderness Press, for the opportunity to take a classic book forward.

Finally, I want to thank my family for supporting me during this project. My son Taylor and daughter Claire, who have ventured into the BWCA many times, admonished me to finish writing so we could pick a trip of our own. My wife Carey managed our family life to give me time to explore and write.

—Lou Dzierzak

May 2009

Contents

Acknowledgments

Locator Map of Boundary Water Canoe Area: Eastern Region

Prefaces

Chapter 1: Introduction to the BWCA Wilderness

History

Wildlife

Bears

Climate

Geology

Wind and Fire

Fire Safety

Wilderness Safety

Rules, Regulations, and Recommendations

Primitive Management Areas

Paddling Along the Canadian Border

Visiting a Wilderness

What You Can Do

Wilderness Defined

Chapter 2: How to Plan a Wilderness Canoe Trip

Pre-Trip Planning

Equipment, Clothing, and Food

Maps

Choosing a Wilderness Route

National Forest Campgrounds

When to Visit the Boundary Waters

Travel Permits, Fees, and Reservations

BWCAW Information Resources

Chapter 3: Entry from the Sawbill Trail

Entry Point 36—Hog Creek

Entry Point 37—Kawishiwi Lake

Entry Point 38—Sawbill Lake

Entry Point 39—Baker Lake

Entry Point 40—Homer Lake

Entry Point 41—Brule Lake

Chapter 4: Entry from the Gunflint Trails—West

Entry Point 43—Bower Trout Lake

Entry Point 44—Ram Lake

Entry Point 45—Morgan Lake

Entry Point 47—Lizz Lake & Swamp Lake

Entry Point 48—Meeds Lake

Entry Point 49—Skipper Lake & Portage Lake

Entry Point 50—Cross Bay Lake

Entry Point 51—Missing Link Lake

Entry Point 52—Brant Lake

Entry Point 54—Seagull Lake

Entry Point 55—Saganaga Lake

Chapter 5: Entry from the Gunflint Trail—East and Arrowhead Trail

Entry Point 80—Larch Creek

Entry Point 57—Magnetic Lake

Entry Point 58—South Lake

Entry Point 60—Duncan Lake

Entry Point 61—Daniels Lake

Entry Point 62—Clearwater Lake

Entry Point 64—East Bearskin Lake

Entry Point 66—Crocodile River

Entry Point 68—Pine Lake

Entry Point 69—John Lake

Entry Point 70—North Fowl Lake

Appendix I: Routes Categorized by Difficulty and Duration

Appendix II: Commercial Canoe trip Outfitters

Appendix III: Lake Index for Fishing

Appendix IV: BWCAW Hiking Trails in the Eastern Region

Appendix V: More Resources

Preface to the 6th Edition

This book was written for the peripatetic paddler—the canoeist who wants to explore the BWCA Wilderness. Base-campers and easy-going anglers, however, should also find a good deal of useful information herein to help them plan their trips.

My introduction to canoeing in the Boundary Waters occurred in 1967, along with 14 other members of my Explorer Post from Indianola, Iowa, and I’ve dipped my paddle in the cool, clear waters of canoe country every summer since then. While guiding BWCA canoe trips for Camp Northland from 1969 through 1977, I saw the need for a published trail guide. None existed at that time. My trail notes at Camp Northland became the foundation for this book.

The BWCAW, with over 200,000 visitors each year, is the most heavily used wilderness in the nation. With over a million pristine acres of lakes, rivers, and forests within its borders, however, the Boundary Waters should be large enough to accommodate its visitors. In 1976, less than one-third of the available quotas were actually used. Unfortunately, however, over two-thirds of the visitors to the Wilderness used less than 14 percent of the designated entry points. The result was (and still is) congestion at some of the most popular entry points. My book was written to help you discover the entry points and routes that may suit your desires and will result in the highest quality wilderness experience possible.

Since publication of my first book in 1978, over 100,000 copies of both volumes have been sold to inquisitive paddlers. Over the years, I received feedback from friends and strangers alike. At my work with camping stores in the Twin Cities and in Ely, as well as at speaking engagements throughout the upper Midwest, I had opportunities to personally meet many of my readers—a valuable experience that presents itself to few writers. Because of the feedback received, and because of continuing research conducted from my current home near the Wilderness, there have been many changes made to these guidebooks in successive editions and printings.

It may seem odd to the casual wilderness observer that frequent changes are necessary to update a guidebook like this one. How can a wilderness change? you might ask. Natural changes do occur, however, and readers need to know about them. Forest fires and windstorms occasionally alter the landscape. Beaver dams deteriorate and small lakes upstream literally dry up. Or new beaver dams are constructed, flooding portage trails.

More often, the changes that may significantly affect your visit are caused by decisions of Forest Service officials. I have witnessed many changes in the administration of the Boundary Waters. The ban against non-reusable food and beverage containers (cans and bottles) took effect in 1971. The visitor distribution (quota) system was started in 1976. Implementation of the BWCA Wilderness Act of 1978, which eliminated motorboats from most of the interior lakes, took effect on January 1, 1979. Since then, entry points have been eliminated, renamed, grouped together, or separated for the purposes of quota restrictions. In 1995, a decision was made to restrict the number of people in a group to nine and the number of watercraft to four. Canoe rests on portage trails were also eliminated that year. These and many other changes did occur in the BWCA Wilderness.

Both my publisher and I want this guidebook to serve you, the paddler. We will continue to make changes in the future, reflecting new regulations, alterations to existing routes, and the wishes of our readers. I’ve tried to make this book interesting and useful. Above all, my goal has always been to impart accurate information. I believe that this attention to accuracy and to the concerns of our readers is why this book continues to be as popular today as it was when first published.

This book was written for the canoe camper who is capable of taking care of himself or herself in a wilderness environment. It does not take you by the hand and lead you through the often-complicated mazes of lakes, streams, and portages that characterize the BWCA Wilderness. It does not tell you when to turn right, when to veer left, or when and where to stop for lunch. You should already possess the understanding and the basic skills that are essential for a canoe trip into a wilderness, particularly the ability to guide yourself along the suggested routes without detailed directions. This book also does not include such topics as how to paddle a canoe, how to carry your gear across portages, how to shoot rapids, or how to pack your gear. Many good how to books have been written about canoeing and camping in the Boundary Waters. This guide is a where to book.

—Robert Beymer

June 2000

Preface to the 7th Edition

Although the numbers of people visiting the BWCA has increased, the demographics of those visiting (like the demographics of American society) are undergoing a watershed change. Outdoor industry trade associations and manufacturers of outdoor equipment have been noting that in the past two decades, the numbers of people participating in paddling, camping, hiking, and other wilderness-oriented activities are in serious decline. Longer work weeks, frantic family schedules, and children’s interest in organized sports, computers, and video games have pushed paddling or camping far down the list of leisure time activities.

There are two ways to react to those findings. Some, who prefer the solitude of their favorite BWCA route, may say it’s a good thing, but others fear this may lead toward waning support for protection of the wilderness. Today, if a logging or mining industry executive presented a proposal to open even the smallest portion of the BWCA to commercial development, millions of people would stand up in opposition. But will that same ethos to protect the wilderness continue?

As the Baby Boomer generation ages and participation rates of younger Americans continue a downward trend, will that same passion hold? Will a young man who grew up as an Xbox master fight for the forest?

Will a young woman who spent her outdoor time playing soccer understand the threat? Will they recall waiting for an early morning mist to burn off before starting out on the day’s journey? Will they remember the scent of the trees and earth the wind presents to them? What about the eagle circling high over a lake or a loon’s cry that cracks the stillness?

There’s no question America’s wilderness areas are under constant threat and need daily diligence to protect them. But wouldn’t it be sad if a new generation of children could not understand the value of these areas?

The interest is there. Kids of all ethnicities and cultures are waiting for the invitation. It’s time to extend a hand and take a kid into the wilderness for the first time. The Boundary Waters Canoe Area is the perfect place to inspire a life-long love of the natural world. We need to create the next generation of stewards who will stand tall to protect this wilderness for people who follow a century from now.

—Lou Dzierzak

May 2009

The singing wilderness has to do with the calling of the loons, northern lights, and the great silences of a land lying northwest of Lake Superior. It is concerned with the simple joys, the timelessness and perspective found in a way of life that is close to the past. I have heard the singing in many places, but I seem to hear it best in the wilderness lake country of the Quetico-Superior, where travel is still by pack and canoe over the ancient trails of the Indians and Voyageurs.

—Sigurd F. Olson

1

Introduction to the BWCA Wilderness

The Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (BWCAW) is paradise for the wilderness paddler. Stretching for nearly 200 miles along the Canadian border of northeastern Minnesota, this magnificent region offers more than 1,000 portage linked lakes, over 2,000 campsites, 154 miles of portage trails, and 1,200 miles of canoe routes through some of the most beautiful country in the world. That’s why over 250,000 people visit it each year and make it the most popular wilderness area in America. At over a million acres, the BWCA is one of the largest assets of our National Wilderness Preservation system, containing the largest remaining old-growth forests east of the Rocky Mountains.

HISTORY

The canoe routes on which you will paddle are the very same water trails used for countless generations by the ancestral Native Americans and by the French-Canadian fur traders, known as Voyageurs. Jacques de Noyons, in about 1688, was probably the first European to paddle through the lakes and streams that now comprise the BWCAW. At that time, the Assiniboine and Cree tribal groups may have lived in the area, but by the time of the French-Canadian fur traders, the Anishinaabe had moved into the region from the east, displacing original groups that eventually moved west to the plains.

Throughout the 18th century, the French Canadian Voyageurs paddled their birch-bark canoes from the hinterlands of northwestern Canada to the shores of Lake Superior, transporting furs from trappers toward the European markets. But the Voyageurs era was short-lived. By the mid-1800s, the populations of fur-bearing animals that had once flourished in the region were nearly depleted. The trappers moved on to more promising areas and the colorful Voyageur era came to an end.

After years of boundary disputes between the British and Americans, the two governments signed the Webster-Ashburton Treaty in 1842. It established the international boundary along the customary route of the fur traders. The Americans had argued that the customary route of the Voyageurs was along the Kaministikwia and Maligne rivers to the north. The British had claimed that the St. Louis River, far to the south, should constitute the boundary. The existing boundary was a compromise.

During the latter half of the 19th century, settlers moving into the area took up farming, logging, and mining. Mineral prospectors first sought gold along the border region, and a short-lived gold rush attracted considerable attention to the area. Far more important to northeastern Minnesota, however, was the discovery of high-grade iron ore. Numerous mines sprung up at the present sites of Ely and Soudan, and in the area southwest of those towns. After the railroad penetrated this part of the country, extensive logging and mining operations threatened to devastate the entire region.

Establishing the BWCA

The use of wilderness lands has been debated ever since Minnesota achieved statehood in 1858. On one side are logging and mining interests that would draw on the natural resources. On the other are those who see recreation as the greater value. As decades passed, the wilderness area has benefited from legislation and court decisions. A summary of key decisions follows:

Wildlife

Perhaps nothing represents the Boundary Waters to its visitors better than the eerie wail of the common loon, the Minnesota State Bird. Before long, nearly every visitor finds him- or herself trying to imitate the distinctive call. But many other birds are equally at home here, including the bald eagle, herring gull, great blue heron, osprey, Canadian jay, and several varieties of hawks and owls. The tranquilizing song of a white-throated sparrow is as much a part of the wilderness experience as is the scolding chirp of a red squirrel.

The BWCAW hosts the nation’s largest population of timber wolves outside Alaska, as well as large populations of moose, white-tailed deer, black bears, beavers, and red fox. Other less visible mammals include otters, lynx, fishers, mink, muskrats, martens, weasels, and squirrels. The more quietly you travel through the wilderness, the greater are your chances of catching a glimpse of the wild creatures that make their home within the BWCAW.

Osprey nest on Ahmakose Lake

The North American moose is the largest mammal living within the BWCAW, and the most sought after did you see animal for most visitors. Paddling around a bend to find oneself face to face with a cow moose and her offspring is an experience of a lifetime. Males, called bulls, can weigh an average of 1,200 lbs and stand 6.5 to 7.5 feet tall at the shoulder. The distinctive antlers can sprout more than 20 tines.

Where will you see moose? Probably the most common place to see these magnificent creatures is at the water’s edge, where they like to feed on aquatic vegetation. But they are also abundant in large open areas that have been cleared or have recently burned. The Turtle Lake, Cavity Lake, and Ham Lake fires all resulted in substantial clearing, creating habitat that is quite favorable to moose and other wildlife. As the forest in these areas grows back to maturity, the moose will move on to other regions. Fire is a natural cycle that is essential to sustaining the population of these burly beasts.

While traveling throughout the BWCAW, always treat the wildlife and their habitat with respect. Remember that you are a visitor in the wilderness but the wild animals are residents. Don’t try to feed the animals or interfere with their normal routines. Should you find yourself near nesting birds, observe them from a distance. Human disturbance at a nest site may lead to nest abandonment and loss of eggs.

The predominant game fishes are northern pike, walleyes, smallmouth bass, and lake trout. Black crappies and bluegills are also plentiful in many of the lakes. Even rainbow and brook trout have been stocked in some lakes.

Contrary to the perception of most paddlers, water covers only about 12 percent of the BWCAW. A coniferous forest of jack pine, red pine, white pine, tamarack, black spruce, white spruce, balsam fir, and white cedar covers most of this region. There are also extensive stands of deciduous trees, including paper birch and quaking aspen. Very few dry land areas in the BWCAW are not forested. Bogs occupy the rest of the region that is not covered by lakes or forests.

Bears

Black bears are common throughout the BWCAW. Although they are not considered to be dangerous and are usually quite shy around campers, they may be pests when they are searching for food—your food. Over the years bears have learned that canoe campers always travel with food packs and (unfortunately) often leave food scraps and garbage lying around their campsites. Where people most frequently camp, bears are most frequently a problem. Actually bears are not the problem, people are. Where campsites are kept clean and food packs are suspended properly, bears are not a problem. Nor are the smaller creatures that might come to depend on humans for their daily sustenance (chipmunks, mice, and the like).

Seeing a bear on a canoe trip should be a treat, not a tragedy. Nevertheless, an unpleasant encounter with a bear could bring an abrupt end to your canoe trip—regardless of who caused the problem. There are no hard-and-fast rules to ensure protection from a bear, since bear behavior differs under different conditions. The bears you may encounter while visiting the BWCAW are wild animals and they could be dangerous; always remember that. With a few precautions, however, you should have no problems with these fascinating and beautiful creatures.

Avoid camping on the most popular lakes where there are numerous, frequently occupied campsites located relatively close together. A small island located well away from the shoreline and away from other islands offers a degree of safety. But don’t let an island campsite lull you into a false sense of security. Bears are very good swimmers.

When you are away from your campsite (even just fishing nearby) and at night, always hang your food pack off the ground. It should be at least 10 feet above the ground and 6 feet away from tree trunks and large limbs. Bears are good climbers, so the food must be a safe distance away from the trunk and from any limbs large enough to support a bear’s weight. Hanging a food pack can be a frustrating process without some forethought and practice. Take a look at the wide selection of hanging systems available through outdoor specialty stores and practice using them before you take your trip. Never store food in your tent. And if food was spilled on your clothes, leave your clothes outside your tent at night. Remember that strong-smelling items like toothpaste, deodorant, and soap should be stored away from your tent.

Keep a clean campsite. Thoroughly burn or safely bury all food scraps and leftover grease, or seal your garbage in an airtight plastic bag and carry it with your food pack. Do not dispose of leftovers in the latrine. Bears will find them and destroy the latrine in the process.

Snipe Lake campsite

Never get between a mother bear and her cub(s). If you see a cub, its mother is probably nearby. Female bears are extremely protective of their young.

If a bear does wander into your campsite, don’t panic. Bears are usually frightened off by loud noises; Try yelling or banging some pots together. Don’t charge the bear; it may become defensive. If a stubborn bear does not back off or acts strangely, move to another campsite.

Finally, don’t let a fear of black bears detract from your enjoyment of the wilderness. Use good common sense, observe the tips above, and you should have no problem with bears—or any other wild animal.

Climate

For paddlers planning a trip to the BWCA, the season lasts just five short months—May through September—and each month can offer a very different travel experience along the same route. Northern lakes are usually free of ice by the beginning of May (always check before heading up) but the forest isn’t completely green for a few more weeks. June can be wet, cool, and plagued by the mind-numbing buzz of a billion hungry mosquitoes. Fisherman often pay the insects little heed and enjoy good fishing conditions in June, knowing that by July and August, when the temperatures are fine for paddlers and campers, the fishing may turn sluggish. Deeper into the summer months, streams that had been gushing with spring snow melt early in the season may not have enough flow to transport a loaded canoe. A shortcut discovered by close scrutiny of a map may be impassible if the streams prove too shallow.

Jasper Falls (between Jasper Lake and Alpine Lake)

Around Labor Day (when crowds thin out after the start of school) the Boundary Waters can offer a wonderful experience of warm days and cool nights. With the first frost the number of biting insects is reduced, but by the end of September, careful planning and consultations with local resources is important. A paddler taking a last trip of the year late in the season runs the risk of cold, wet, windy weather and even the possibility of opening up a tent flap to find snow.

In an area as large as the BWCA, weather conditions can vary dramatically. Conditions on and near Lake Superior influence the weather across the eastern portion of the BWCA. Temperatures, rainfall, and wind conditions vary, of course, throughout the BWCAW. The following statistics, recorded in International Falls, MN represent historical estimates for the western region of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area.

The weather plays an important role in any camping trip. Learning to identify basic cloud patterns and read the wind conditions are skills worth nurturing. Packing to accommodate a wide range of weather conditions lessens the chance of enduring an unseasonably cold or wet week that just happens to descend during your scheduled trip dates.

Geology

The BWCAW contains some of the oldest exposed rock in the world, estimated to be as old as 2.7 billion years. It is part of the vast region known as the Canadian Shield, which underlies almost 2 million square miles of eastern Canada and the Lake Superior region of the United States. In Minnesota, this belt of ancient exposed rock extends west from the area of Saganaga Lake on the international border through Ely and International Falls to the northwestern part of the state, where the old rocks disappear beneath younger sedimentary deposits. Included in this expanse of ancient rocks are the metavolcanic Ely Greenstone formation, the metasedimentary Knife Lake Group, and great granitic masses like the Vermilion and the Saganaga batholiths.

A mountain-building period began about 2.6 billion years ago, during which the rocks became metamorphosed and strongly deformed, and the granites were intruded from below into the older rocks. The rocks that had been formed or altered deep within the earth’s crust became exposed at the surface and were then subjected to erosion.

Inland seas covered what we now call the North