Handbook of Energy: Diagrams, Charts, and Tables

By Cutler J. Cleveland and Christopher G. Morris

Handbook of Energy, Volume I: Diagrams, Charts, and Tables provides comprehensive, organized coverage on all phases of energy and its role in society, including its social, economic, political, historical, and environmental aspects. While there is a wealth of information about energy available, it is spread across many books, journals, and websites and it tends to target either a particular form of energy or a specific audience. Handbook of Energy provides a central repository of information that meets diverse user communities. It focuses on visual, graphic, and tabular information in a schematic format. Individuals and researchers at all educational levels will find the Handbook of Energy to be a valuable addition to their personal libraries.

• Easy-to-read technical diagrams and tables display a vast array of data and concepts

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: May 2, 2013
• ISBN: 9780080914572

Cutler J. Cleveland

Cutler J. Cleveland is the Director of the Center for Energy and Environmental Studies at Boston University, where he also holds the position of Professor in the Department of Geography and Environment. Dr. Cleveland is Editor-in-Chief of the Encyclopedia of Energy (Elsevier Science, 2004), winner of an American Library Association award, Editor-in-Chief of the Dictionary of Energy (Elsevier Science, in press) and Editor-in-Chief of the journal Ecological Economics. Dr. Cleveland is a member of the American Statistical Association’s Committee on Energy Statistics, an advisory group to the Department of Energy, and a participant in the Stanford Energy Modeling Forum. He has been a consultant to numerous private and public organizations, including the Asian Development Bank, Charles River Associates, the Technical Research Centre of Finland, the U.S. Department of Energy, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The National Science Foundation, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the MacArthur Foundation have supported his research. Dr. Cleveland’s research focuses on the ecological-economic analysis of how energy and materials are used to meet human needs. His research employs the use of econometric models of oil supply, natural resource scarcity, and the relation between the use of energy and natural resources and economic systems. Dr. Cleveland publishes in journals such as Nature, Science, Ecological Modeling, Energy, The Energy Journal, The Annual Review of Energy, Resource and Energy Economics, the American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, the Canadian Journal of Forest Research, and Ecological Economics. He has won publication awards from the International Association of Energy Economics and the National Wildlife Federation.

Book preview

I

Sources

Section 1 Bioenergetics

Section 2 Biomass

Section 3 Hydropower

Section 4 Wind

Section 5 Coal

Section 6 Oil and Gas

Section 7 Electricity

Section 8 Nuclear

Section 9 Renewables

Section 10 Solar

Section 11 Photovoltaic

Section 12 Geothermal

Section 13 Hydrogen

Section 14 Fuel Cells

Section 15 Ocean Energy

Section 1

Bioenergetics

Figures

Figure 1.1 Ecological or energy pyramid, with amount of energy at each trophic level.

Figure 1.2 The flow of energy through a river ecosystem in Silver Springs, Florida. Energy units are kilocalories per square meter per year (kcal/m²/yr). Biomass units represent the dry weight of organic matter (per square meter). The pyramid of numbers is derived from a census of the populations of autotrophs, herbivores, and two levels of carnivores on an acre (0.4 hectare) of a typical grassland. The figures represent number of individuals counted at each trophic level. Source: Energy data from Odum, Howard T. 1957. Trophic Structure and Productivity of Silver Springs, Florida. Ecological Monographs 27:55–112; adapted from Kimball, John W., Kimball’s Biology Pages, <http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/W/Welcome.html>.

Figure 1.3 Organisms have ranges of tolerance for environmental factors (sunlight, temperature, pH, ec.). Optimum conditions are those that are most favorable for an organism to survive, grow and reproduce. This optimum is somewhere within the range of tolerance for that organism. Source: Adapted from Hall, C.A.S., J.A. Stanford and R. Hauer. 1992. The distribution and abundance of organisms as a consequence of energy balances along multiple environmental gradients. Oikos 65: 377–390.

Figure 1.4 Energy cost of locomotion for swimming, flying, and running animals, as a function of body size. Source: Data from Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1972. Locomotion: energy cost of swimming, flying and running. Science 177, 222–228.

Figure 1.5 The relation between basal metabolic rate and body weight. Source: Data from Monteith, J.L. and M.H. Unsworth. 1990. Principles of Environmental Physics (Second Edition), (London, Edward Arnold).

Figure 1.6 Generalized energy budget used to examine reproductive energetics. Source: Kunz, Thomas H. and Kimberly S. Orrell. 2004. Reproduction, Energy Costs of, In: Cutler J. Cleveland, Editor-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Energy, (New York, Elsevier), Pages 423-442.

Figure 1.7 Comparative energetics of a snake (ectotherm) and human (endotherm). Source: Data from Kaufmann, Robert K. and Cleveland, Cutler J. 2007. Environmental Science (McGraw-Hill, Dubuque, IA).

Figure 1.8 General relationship among energy content of eggs, energy allocated to post-hatch parental care, and development stage of offspring at hatch. Source: Kunz, Thomas H. and Kimberly S. Orrell. 2004. Reproduction, Energy Costs of, In: Cutler J. Cleveland, Editor-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Energy, (New York, Elsevier), Pages 423-442.

Figure 1.9 Body temperature is established as a balance between heat input and heat loss. Heat input occurs through heat transfer or from obligatory or regulatory thermogenesis. Heat transfer, either loss or gain, between the animal and its environment can occur via conduction, convection, radiation, or evaporation/condensation. The rate of heat transfer for each mode is proportional to the surface area and, except for evaporation/conduction, is proportional to the temperature gradient between the animal and the environment. For an ‘ectotherm’ at an established body temperature (Tb) in equilibrium with a given ambient temperature (Ta) heat gain equals heat loss (intersection with Tb = Ta). At temperatures on either side of this single Ta, for Tb to remain constant changes in heat transfer need to occur; at lower Ta heat loss will increase and heat needs to be added (or heat loss reduced) and for higher Ta heat gain will increase and heat loss needs to increase (and/or heat input reduced). The increase in cellular metabolism associated with leakier membranes in ‘endotherms’ is coupled with increased heat production (obligatory thermogenesis). The production of heat will result in an increase in Tb to a temperature where heat loss from the increasing Tb–Ta gradient will reestablish equilibrium at the single Ta in which equilibrium was originally established in the ‘ectotherm.’ To maintain Tb with changing Ta again requires adjustments in heat transfer. In the case of an ‘endotherm,’ a decrease in Ta is initially met over a narrow temperature range through changes in heat transfer to offset the increasing heat loss (known as the ‘thermal neutral zone’, TNZ), after which further decline in Ta is countered with increased heat production (regulatory thermogenesis). Source: Frappell, P., K. Cummings. 2008 Homeotherms, In: Sven Erik Jorgensen and Brian Fath, Editors-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Ecology, (Oxford, Academic Press), Pages 1884-1893.

Figure 1.10 Dual controller model for the regulation of body temperature (Tb) with a thermal set-point. One group of feedback elements (sensors) responds with increased activity to rising temperature while the other group responds with increased activity to falling temperature. By comparing the activity of both groups of sensors the load error is generated (the difference between set-point and Tb) and the control elements are activated in proportion to the load error. An increase in Tb results in dominance of warm sensor activity and the control elements (e.g., changes in behavior, heat transfer properties, or heat production) restore equilibrium by increasing heat loss. When the activity from warm and cold sensors is equal, the load error is zero and Tb is at its set-point. For Tb to be regulated the system requires Tb to be displaced from set-point. How far the system can be displaced from equilibrium establishes the load error that is tolerated for the system. Source: Frappell, P., K. Cummings. 2008 Homeotherms, In: Sven Erik Jorgensen and Brian Fath, Editors-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Ecology, (Oxford, Academic Press), Pages 1884-1893.

Figure 1.11 (a) Activation energy (Ea) of a chemical reaction. ΔG – Gibbs free energy change of the chemical reaction. For the reaction to occur, the energy of reactants must be increased by the value of Ea, after which the reaction proceeds spontaneously. A key function of enzymes as biological catalysts is to reduce the activation energy barrier of activated complex and thus to facilitate biochemical reactions. (b) The rate of biochemical reactions increases with increasing body temperature (Tb) due to increase in the fraction of molecules with energy levels exceeding Ea. EP, Ek – Kinetic and/or potential energy of the reactant molecules. Source: Sokolova, I. 2008. Temperature Regulation, In: Sven Erik Jorgensen and Brian Fath, Editors-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Ecology, (Oxford, Academic Press), Pages 3509-3516.

Figure 1.12 Principle of biomagnification. The numbers are representative values (ppm) of the concentration of the pesticide DDT and its derivatives. The horizontal bars describe the amount of energy at each trophic level. Source: Data from Kimball’s Biology Pages, <http://biology-pages.info>.

Charts

Chart 1.1

Estimated chemical energy resources in a 70 kg human body. Source: Data from Freitas, Robert A. 1999. Nanomedicine, Volume I: Basic Capabilties (Austin, TX, Landes Bioscience).

Chart 1.2

Metabolic rate (W) versus body mass (kg) for selected animals. Source: Data from West, Geoffrey B. 2012. The importance of quantitative systemic thinking in medicine, The Lancet, Volume 379, Issue 9825, Pages 1551-1559.

Chart 1.3

Mass-specific metabolic rate versus body mass. Source: Data from Eckert, Roger and D.J. Randall. 1983. Animal Physiology, (San Francisco, W. H. Freeman).

Chart 1.4

Approximate power density of biological cells and human tissues. Data from Freitas, Robert A. 1999. Nanomedicine, Volume I: Basic Capabilties (Austin, TX, Landes Bioscience).

Chart 1.5

The fate of incident photon energy on an aquatic plant, Ulva rigida, as a percentage of total. Source: Data from Gordillo FJL, Figueroa FL, Niell FX. 2003. Photon- and carbon-use efficiency in Ulva, rigida at different CO2 and N levels. Planta; 218(2):315-322.

Chart 1.6

Net primary production of biomes. Source: Data from Campbell, Neil A. and Jane B. Reece. Biology 7th Edition. San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin Cummings, 2005.

Tables

Table 1.1

Energy costs of human activity

aThe term MET (metabolic equivalent) is the ratio of a work metabolic rate to the resting metabolic rate. One MET is defined as 1 kcal/kg/hour and is roughly equivalent to the energy cost of sitting quietly. A MET also is defined as oxygen uptake in ml/kg/min, with one MET roughly equivalent to 3.5 ml/kg/min. Multiples of 1 MET indicate a higher energy cost for a specific activity. For example, a 2 MET activity requires twice the energy cost of sitting quietly.

Source: Adapted from Ainsworth, B.E. 2002. The Compendium of Physical Activities Tracking Guide. Prevention Research Center, Norman J. Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina.

Table 1.2

Daily average energy requirement for women aged 30 to 59.9 years

BMR (basal metabolic rate): the amount of daily energy expended by humans and other animals at rest.

BMI (body mass index): heuristic proxy for human body fat based on an individual’s weight and height.

Source: Adapted from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, United Nations University, World Health Organization. 2004. Human Energy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation, (Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).

Table 1.3

Daily average energy requirement for men aged 30 to 59.9 years

BMR (basal metabolic rate): the amount of daily energy expended by humans and other animals at rest.

BMI (body mass index): heuristic proxy for human body fat based on an individual’s weight and height.

Source: Adapted from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, United Nations University, World Health Organization. 2004. Human Energy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation, (Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).

Table 1.4

Activities accounting for 90% of human energy expenditure in the United States for males and females

aActivities that were not present on list for entire sample.

Source: Dong, Linda, Gladys Block and Shelly Mandel. 2004. Activities Contributing to Total Energy Expenditure in the United States: Results from the NHAPS Study, International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 1:4.

Table 1.5

Activities that account for 90% of human energy expenditure in the United States, not including sleeping

a

aSleeping or napping is the most common activity, averaging about eight hours in the past 24-hour period, for both males and females. Sleeping or napping contributes 19% of the overall energy expenditure.

bThe term MET (metabolic equivalent) is the ratio of a work metabolic rate to the resting metabolic rate. One MET is defined as 1 kcal/kg/hour and is roughly equivalent to the energy cost of sitting quietly. A MET also is defined as oxygen uptake in ml/kg/min, with one MET roughly equivalent to 3.5 ml/kg/min. Multiples of 1 MET indicate a higher energy cost for a specific activity. For example, a 2 MET activity requires twice the energy cost of sitting quietly.

Source: Dong, Linda, Gladys Block and Shelly Mandel. 2004. Activities Contributing to Total Energy Expenditure in the United States: Results from the NHAPS Study, International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 1:4.

Table 1.6

Girls’ energy requirements

Girls’ energy requirements calculated by quadratic regression analysis of TEE on weight, plus allowance for energy deposition in tissue during growth (Eg).

aTEE (total energy expenditure): The energy spent, on average, in a 24-hour period by an individual or a group of individuals. TEE (MJ/d) 1.102 + 0.273 kg - 0.0019 kg².

bEg = energy deposition in tissue during growth = 8.6 kJ or 2 kcal/g weight gain.

cBMR (basal metabolic rate): The minimal rate of energy expenditure compatible with life. It is measured in the supine position under standard conditions of rest, fasting, immobility, thermoneutrality and mental relaxation; BMRest: basal metabolic rate estimated with predictive equations on body weight.

dPAL (physical activity level) = TEE/BMR. To calculate requirements, add Eg, or multiply by 1.01.

eRequirements for 1 to 2 years adjusted by 7 percent to fit with energy requirements of infants.

Source: Adapted from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, United Nations University, World Health Organization. 2004. Human Energy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation, (Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).

Table 1.7

Boys’ energy requirements

Boys’ energy requirements calculated by quadratic regression analysis of TEE on weight, plus allowance for energy deposition in tissue during growth (Eg).

aTEE (total energy expenditure): The energy spent, on average, in a 24-hour period by an individual or a group of individuals. TEE (MJ/d) = 1.298 + 0.265 kg- 0.0011kg².

bEg (energy deposition in tissue during growth) = 8.6 kJ or 2 kcal/g weight gain.

cBMR (basal metabolic rate): The minimal rate of energy expenditure compatible with life. It is measured in the supine position under standard conditions of rest, fasting, immobility, thermoneutrality and mental relaxation; BMRest: basal metabolic rate estimated with predictive equations on body weight.

dPAL (physical activity level) = TEE/BMR. To calculate requirements, add Eg, or multiply by 1.01.

eRequirements for 1 to 2 years adjusted by 7 percent to fit with energy requirements of infants.

Source: Adapted from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, United Nations University, World Health Organization. 2004. Human Energy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation, (Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).

Table 1.8

Energy requirements of breastfed, formula-fed and all infants

Numbers are rounded to the closest 5 kJ/kg/d, and 1 kcal/kg/d, using the following predictive equations for total energy expenditure (TEE):

aTEE (MJ/kg/d) = (−0.635 +0.388 weight)/weight.

bTEE (MJ/kg/d) = (−0.122 + 0.346 weight) /weight.

cTEE (MJ/kg/d) = (−0.416 + 0/371 weight)/weight.

Source: Adapted from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, United Nations University, World Health Organization. 2004. Human Energy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation, (Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).

Table 1.9

Total energy expenditure measured in well-nourished non-pregnant and pregnant women

TEE (total energy expenditure): The energy spent, on average, in a 24-hour period by an individual or a group of individuals.

BMR (basal metabolic rate): The minimal rate of energy expenditure compatible with life. It is measured in the supine position under standard conditions of rest, fasting, immobility, thermoneutrality and mental relaxation.

AEE (activity energy expenditure): Themodifiable component of total energy expenditure (TEE) derived from all activities, both volitional and nonvolitional.

apreg = pregnant

bNP = non-pregnant

csd = standard devation of the mean

Source: Adapted from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, United Nations University, World Health Organization. 2004. Human Energy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation, (Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).

Table 1.10

Additional energy cost of pregnancy in women with an average gestational weight of 12 kg

Weight gain and tissue deposition in first trimester computed from last menstrual period (i.e. an interval of 79 days). Second and third trimesters computed as 280/3=93 days each. Basal metabolic rate (BMR): The minimal rate of energy expenditure compatible with life. It is measured in the supine position under standard conditions of rest, fasting, immobility, thermoneutrality and mental relaxation.

aProtein and fat deposition estimated from longitudinal studies of body composition during pregnancy, and an energy value of 23.6kJ (5.65 kcal)/g protein depositied, and 28.7 kJ (9.25 kcal)/g fat deposited.

bEfficiency of food energy utilization for protein and fat deposition taken as 0.90.

cEfficiency of energy utilization not included in this calculation, as the energy cost of synthesis is included in the measurement of total energy expenditure (TEE) by doubly labelled water (DLW).

Table 1.11

Energy cost of human milk production by women who practice exclusive breastfeeding

aInsensible water losses assumed to be equal to 5 percent milk intake.

bGross energy content measured by adiabatic bomb calorimetry or macronutrient analysis.

cBased on energetic efficiency of 80 percent.

Source: Adapted from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, United Nations University, World Health Organization. 2004. Human Energy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation, (Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).

Table 1.12

Protein, fat, and energy deposition during growth in the first year of life

Energy equivalents: 1 g protein = 23.6 kJ (5.65 kcal); 1 g fat = 38.7 kJ (9.25 kcal).

Source: Adapted from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, United Nations University, World Health Organization. 2004. Human Energy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation, (Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).

Table 1.13

Equations for estimating BMR from body weight

a

aWeight is expressed in kg. Predictive equations for children and adolescents are presented for the sake of completeness. BMR (basal metabolic rate): The minimal rate of energy expenditure compatible with life. It is measured in the supine position under standard conditions of rest, fasting, immobility, thermoneutrality and mental relaxation.

bstandard error of estimate.

Source: Adapted from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, United Nations University, World Health Organization. 2004. Human Energy Requirements: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation, (Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations).

Table 1.14

The energetics of a Northern Eem Neanderthal society 125,000 years ago

a

aBased on a location in Northern Europe with an average temperature of about 8° C. These are etimates of activities requiring energy use beyond the basic metabolic rate (which for Neanderthal males averaged 92 W, for females 77 W), based on a group with 10 adult members and 15 children. Activities include hunting, wood provision, and tool making; fires were used for cooking and heating the cave or hut used for dwelling; but without woolen covers and some clothes and footwear, survival at Northern latitudes would not be possible.

Source: Adapted from Sørensen, Bent. 2011. Renewable Energy (Fourth Edition), (Boston, Academic Press); based on data from B. Sørensen, Energy use by Eem Neanderthals, Journal of Archaeological Science, 36 (2009), pp. 2201–2205.

Table 1.15

Sustainable power of individual animals in good condition

Source: Adapted from Carruthers, I. Rodriquez, M. 1992. Tools for Agriculture, a guide to appropriate equipment for small holder farmers. I.T., C.T.A., Intermediate Technology Publication, U.K.

Table 1.16

Comparison of metabolic rates of endotherms and ectotherms of similar body mass

For endotherms, basal metabolic rate is shown. For ectotherms, standard metabolic rate over a range of temperatures is shown.

Source: Adapted from Labocha, M.K., J.P. Hayes, Endotherm, In: Sven Erik Jorgensen and Brian Fath, Editor(s)-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Ecology, (Oxford, Academic Press), Pages 1270-1276.

Table 1.17

Basal metabolic rate (BMR) of some mammals over a large range of body mass

BMR is the metabolic rate in the absence of physical activity in post-absorptive animals, within the zone of thermal neutrality, and during the inactive phase of the normal circadian cycle.

Source: Adapted from Labocha, M.K., J.P. Hayes, Endotherm, In: Sven Erik Jorgensen and Brian Fath, Editor(s)-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Ecology, (Oxford, Academic Press), Pages 1270-1276.

Table 1.18

Maximum energy reserve size and fasting endurance of food- and fat-storing hibernators

Source: Hadapted from Humphries, M. M., Thomas, D. W., & Kramer, D. L. 2003. The Role of Energy Availability in Mammalian Cost-Benefit Approach. Physiological & Biochemical Zoology, 76(2), 165.

Table 1.19

Thermal resistance, s, of animals

a

as is the resistance to sensible heat loss. A resistance of of 100 s m-1 (or 1 S cm-1) is equivalent to insulation of 0.078 K m² W−1.

Source: Adapted from Monteith, J.L. and M.H. Unsworth. 1990. Principles of Environmental Physics (Second Edition), (London, Edward Arnold).

Table 1.20

Energy Content of Food

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Table 1.21

Digestability, Heat of Combustion, and net physiologic energy value of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates

athe percentage of a foodstuff taken into the digestive tract that is absorbed into the body.

bnet physiologic energy values are computed as the coefficient of digestibility x heat of combustion adjusted for energy loss in urine.

Source: Adapted from McArdle,William D, Frank I. Katch, Victor L. Katch. 2009. Exercise Physiology: Nutrition, Energy, and Human Performance (7th Edition), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Section 2

Biomass

Figures

Figure 2.1 The biomass resource base. Source: Naik, S.N., Vaibhav V. Goud, Prasant K. Rout, Ajay K. Dalai. 2010. Production of first and second generation biofuels: A comprehensive review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 14, Issue 2, Pages 578-597.

Figure 2.2 Pathways for biomass energy. Source: Adapted from National Science Foundation. 2008. Breaking the Chemical and Engineering Barriers to Lignocellulosic Biofuels: Next Generation Hydrocarbon Biorefineries, Ed. George Huber. University of Massachusetts Amherst. National Science Foundation. Bioengineering, Environmental, and Transport Systems Division. Washington D.C.

Figure 2.3 Biomass conversion processes. Source: Naik, S.N., Vaibhav V. Goud, Prasant K. Rout, Ajay K. Dalai. 2010. Production of first and second generation biofuels: A comprehensive review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 14, Issue 2, Pages