James (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament)

By Dan G. McCartney

Dan McCartney, a highly regarded New Testament scholar and an expert on biblical interpretation, offers a substantive yet accessible commentary on James in this latest addition to the award-winning BECNT series. With extensive research and thoughtful chapter-by-chapter exegesis, McCartney leads readers through all aspects of the book of James--sociological, historical, and theological--to help them better understand its meaning and relevance.

As with all BECNT volumes, this commentary features the author's detailed interaction with the Greek text and an acclaimed, user-friendly design. It admirably achieves the dual aims of the series--academic sophistication with pastoral sensitivity and accessibility.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Baker Publishing Group
• Release date: Nov 1, 2009
• ISBN: 9781441206466

Dan G. McCartney

Dan G. McCartney (PhD, Westminster Theological Seminary) is professor of New Testament interpretation at Redeemer Seminary in Dallas, Texas. He previously taught at Westminster Theological Seminary in Philadelphia for more than twenty years. He is the author of Let the Reader Understand: A Guide to Interpreting and Applying the Bible and Why Does it Have to Hurt? The Meaning of Christian Suffering. McCartney also revised J. Gresham Machen's New Testament Greek for Beginners.

Book preview

BAKER EXEGETICAL COMMENTARY

ON THE NEW TESTAMENT

ROBERT W. YARBROUGH

and JOSHUA W. JIPP, EDITORS

Volumes now available:

Matthew   David L. Turner

Mark   Robert H. Stein

Luke   Darrell L. Bock

Acts   Darrell L. Bock

Romans, 2nd ed.   Thomas R. Schreiner

1 Corinthians   David E. Garland

2 Corinthians   George H. Guthrie

Galatians   Douglas J. Moo

Ephesians   Frank Thielman

Philippians   Moisés Silva

Colossians and Philemon   G. K. Beale

1–2 Thessalonians   Jeffrey A. D. Weima

James   Dan G. McCartney

1 Peter   Karen H. Jobes

1–3 John   Robert W. Yarbrough

Jude and 2 Peter   Gene L. Green

Revelation   Grant R. Osborne

***

Dan G. McCartney (PhD, Westminster Theological Seminary) is professor of New Testament interpretation at Redeemer Theological Seminary in Dallas. Prior to this, he was professor of New Testament at Westminster Theological Seminary, where he taught for more than twenty-five years. He is the author of Let the Reader Understand: A Guide to Interpreting and Applying the Bible and Why Does It Have to Hurt? The Meaning of Christian Suffering. He also revised J. Gresham Machen’s New Testament Greek for Beginners.

© 2009 by Dan G. McCartney

Published by Baker Academic

a division of Baker Publishing Group

PO Box 6287, Grand Rapids, MI 49516-6287

www.bakeracademic.com

Ebook edition created 2013

Ebook corrections 12.05.2023

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—for example, electronic, photocopy, recording—without the prior written permission of the publisher. The only exception is brief quotations in printed reviews.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file at the Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

ISBN 978-1-4412-0646-6

Unless otherwise indicated, all English Bible quotations (except for the Epistle of James) are from The Holy Bible, English Standard Version, copyright © 2001 by Crossway Bibles, a division of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations labeled NIV are from the HOLY BIBLE, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations labeled RSV are from the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright 1952 [2nd edition, 1971] by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

All quotations from the Epistle of James are the author’s own translation.

Baker Publishing Group publications use paper produced from sustainable forestry practices and post-consumer waste whenever possible.

To my former colleagues in the biblical studies departments

at Westminster Theological Seminary,

for their encouragement and support,

and

in memory of J. Alan Groves,

whose life so beautifully manifested the wisdom

that comes from above.

וַיִּתְהַלֵּךְ אֶת־הָאֱלֹהִים וְאֵינֶנּוּ כִּי־לָקַח אֹתוֹ אֱלֹהִים׃

Contents

Cover

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication

Series Preface

Author’s Preface

Abbreviations

Transliteration

Map

Introduction to James

I. Salutation (1:1)

II. Overview of the Life of Faith (1:2–27)

A. Faith and Wisdom (1:2–8)

B. Pride and Wealth (1:9–12)

C. Faith and Testing (1:13–18)

D. Doing the Word of God (1:19–25)

E. True Religion (1:26–27)

III. First Discourse: Faith and Behavior (2:1–26)

A. Part 1: Faith, Favoritism, and Law (2:1–13)

B. Part 2: Faith and Works (2:14–26)

IV. Second Discourse: Faith, Wisdom, and Speech Ethics (3:1–18)

A. Part 1: Teachers, Tongues, and Turmoil (3:1–12)

B. Part 2: Wisdom from Above (3:13–18)

V. Third Discourse: Strife in the Church as Lack of Faith (4:1–12)

A. Part 1: Lusts and Repentance (4:1–10)

B. Part 2: Defamation and Censure (4:11–12)

VI. Interjection: Two Oracles of Warning (4:13–5:6)

A. Oracle 1: Warning to Merchants (4:13–17)

B. Oracle 2: Warning to Landlords (5:1–6)

VII. Fourth Discourse: Looking to God (5:7–18)

A. Part 1: Faith and Patience (5:7–11)

B. Bridge Verse: Prohibition of Oaths (5:12)

C. Part 2: Faith and Prayer (5:13–18)

VIII. Closing Exhortation: Mutual Responsibility and Blessing (5:19–20)

Excursus 1: Faith as the Central Concern of James

Excursus 2: Faith, Works, and Justification in James and Paul

Excursus 3: James and Wisdom

Excursus 4: James and Suffering

Works Cited

Index of Subjects

Index of Authors

Index of Greek Words

Index of Scripture and Other Ancient Writings

Notes

Back Cover

Series Preface

The chief concern of the Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (BECNT) is to provide, within the framework of informed evangelical thought, commentaries that blend scholarly depth with readability, exegetical detail with sensitivity to the whole, and attention to critical problems with theological awareness. We hope thereby to attract the interest of a fairly wide audience, from the scholar who is looking for a thoughtful and independent examination of the text to the motivated lay Christian who craves a solid but accessible exposition.

Nevertheless, a major purpose is to address the needs of pastors and others involved in the preaching and exposition of the Scriptures as the uniquely inspired Word of God. This consideration affects directly the parameters of the series. For example, serious biblical expositors cannot afford to depend on a superficial treatment that avoids the difficult questions, but neither are they interested in encyclopedic commentaries that seek to cover every conceivable issue that may arise. Our aim, therefore, is to focus on those problems that have a direct bearing on the meaning of the text (although selected technical details are treated in the additional notes).

Similarly, a special effort is made to avoid treating exegetical questions for their own sake, that is, in relative isolation from the thrust of the argument as a whole. This effort may involve (at the discretion of the individual contributors) abandoning the verse-by-verse approach in favor of an exposition that focuses on the paragraph as the main unit of thought. In all cases, however, the commentaries will stress the development of the argument and explicitly relate each passage to what precedes and follows it so as to identify its function in context as clearly as possible.

We believe, moreover, that a responsible exegetical commentary must take fully into account the latest scholarly research, regardless of its source. The attempt to do this in the context of a conservative theological tradition presents certain challenges, and in the past the results have not always been commendable. In some cases, evangelicals appear to make use of critical scholarship not for the purpose of genuine interaction but only to dismiss it. In other cases, the interaction glides over into assimilation, theological distinctives are ignored or suppressed, and the end product cannot be differentiated from works that arise from a fundamentally different starting point.

The contributors to this series attempt to avoid these pitfalls. On the one hand, they do not consider traditional opinions to be sacrosanct, and they are certainly committed to doing justice to the biblical text whether or not it supports such opinions. On the other hand, they will not quickly abandon a long-standing view, if there is persuasive evidence in its favor, for the sake of fashionable theories. What is more important, the contributors share a belief in the trustworthiness and essential unity of Scripture. They also consider that the historic formulations of Christian doctrine, such as the ecumenical creeds and many of the documents originating in the sixteenth-century Reformation, arose from a legitimate reading of Scripture, thus providing a proper framework for its further interpretation. No doubt, the use of such a starting point sometimes results in the imposition of a foreign construct on the text, but we deny that it must necessarily do so or that the writers who claim to approach the text without prejudices are invulnerable to the same danger.

Accordingly, we do not consider theological assumptions—from which, in any case, no commentator is free—to be obstacles to biblical interpretation. On the contrary, an exegete who hopes to understand the apostle Paul in a theological vacuum might just as easily try to interpret Aristotle without regard for the philosophical framework of his whole work or without having recourse to those subsequent philosophical categories that make possible a meaningful contextualization of his thought. It must be emphasized, however, that the contributors to the present series come from a variety of theological traditions and that they do not all have identical views with regard to the proper implementation of these general principles. In the end, all that matters is whether the series succeeds in representing the original text accurately, clearly, and meaningfully to the contemporary reader.

Shading has been used to assist the reader in locating salient sections of the treatment of each passage: introductory comments and concluding summaries. Textual variants in the Greek text are signaled in the author’s translation by means of half-brackets around the relevant word or phrase (e.g., ⌜Gerasenes⌝), thereby alerting the reader to turn to the additional notes at the end of each exegetical unit for a discussion of the textual problem. The documentation uses the author-date method, in which the basic reference consists of author’s surname + year + page number(s): Fitzmyer 1992: 58. The only exceptions to this system are well-known reference works (e.g., BDAG, LSJ, TDNT). Full publication data and a complete set of indexes can be found at the end of the volume.

Robert W. Yarbrough

Robert H. Stein

Author’s Preface

The Epistle of James is perhaps best known for its declaration Faith without works is dead and its assertion that a nonworking faith cannot justify anyone. It is vital to the health of the church that we remember this. Orthodoxy is worthless unless it produces orthopraxy. Jesus declared, By their fruits you will know them (Matt. 7:20 KJV alt.), and he made it quite clear that not everyone who claims Jesus as Lord on the day of judgment will enter the kingdom, but only those who have done the will of the Father (Matt. 7:21–23). One cannot have Jesus as Savior without owning him as Lord, and one cannot have him as Lord without a commitment to obey him. The Epistle of James serves as a reminder that a faith claim and genuine faith are two different things.

This is not at all to set the voice of James against that of Paul. Paul, no less than James (and Jesus), insists that right belief must result in right behavior and that those who live wicked lives have no part in the kingdom of God (Gal. 5:21; Eph. 5:5). Even a mountain-moving faith, if it has not love, is nothing (1 Cor. 13:2). It is a grotesque caricature of Paul to turn his doctrine of justification by faith into a ticket to heaven by a one-time receiving Jesus into your heart. But James’s letter, perhaps even more clearly than Paul’s writings, warns Christians that faith in Jesus Christ means more than saying yes to an offer of free fire insurance.

James has other concerns, of course. His letter touches on a number of issues of practical Christian life: temptation, anger, speech, care of the poor, respect for everyone regardless of social status, relationships within the church, business plans, prayer, illness, and more. But the theme that runs throughout is James’s insistence that true Christian faith must make a difference in the way we deal with such life questions. In fact, James talks about faith considerably more than he talks about works as such. It is precisely because faith is so crucial that James insists that it must be genuine and active. Hypocrisy is as dangerous and insidious a problem for the church today as it was for the Christians of James’s day or the Jews of Jesus’s time. It is still possible, indeed easy, for religious people to deceive themselves into thinking that they are true believers and chosen by God, when all the while they belie their faith by living according to their own desires rather than God’s. It is precisely our amazing ability to deceive ourselves that makes James’s warnings so important. This commentary is offered in the hope that the epistle that it seeks to expound will be heard more clearly in the church of our day.

Several words of thanks are in order here. First, my thanks to my colleagues and the Board of Westminster Seminary for granting me a study leave to complete the manuscript. Second, I am indebted to my research assistant for one summer and now my colleague, Dr. Adrian Smith, for his help in digging up and preprocessing numerous journal articles and chapters in multiauthor works. Third, I greatly appreciate the patience that Wells Turner has shown in helping me get the details right. Fourth, I am tremendously grateful to Moisés Silva, first my teacher and advisor, then my colleague and friend, for giving me the opportunity and encouragement to delve into a book to which I had previously given little thought. Finally, how could I ever express adequate thanks to my wife, Kathy, dearest companion, most trusted advisor, faithful prayer partner, occasional research assistant, and best friend? The heart of her husband safely trusts in her.

Abbreviations

Bibliographic and General

Hebrew Bible

Greek Testament

Other Jewish and Christian Writings

Josephus and Philo

Rabbinic Tractates

The abbreviations below are used for the names of the tractates in the Mishnah (indicated by a prefixed m.), Tosefta (t.), Babylonian Talmud (b.), and Jerusalem/Palestinian Talmud (y.).

Qumran / Dead Sea Scrolls

Greek Papyri

Classical Writers

Transliteration

Hebrew

Notes on the Transliteration of Hebrew

Accents are not shown in transliteration.

Silent šĕwāʾ is not indicated in transliteration.

The spirant forms ב ג ד כ פ ת are usually not specially indicated in transliteration.

Dāgēš forte is indicated by doubling the consonant. Euphonic dāgēš and dāgēš lene are not indicated in transliteration.

Maqqēp is represented by a hyphen.

Greek

Notes on the Transliteration of Greek

Accents, lenis (smooth breathing), and iota subscript are not shown in transliteration.

The transliteration of asper (rough breathing) precedes a vowel or diphthong (e.g., ἁ = ha; αἱ = hai) and follows ρ (i.e., ῥ = rh).

Gamma is transliterated n only when it precedes γ, κ, ξ, or χ.

Upsilon is transliterated u only when it is part of a diphthong (i.e., αυ, ευ, ου, υι).

map.gif

Introduction to James

The document known as the Epistle of James has a unique voice in the NT. Its orientation to practical theology, its interest in true godly wisdom and consistent Christian behavior, and its large supply of memorable phrases and aphorisms that encapsulate many aspects of the practical Christian life have made it useful for purposes of moral exhortation. However, it has been a lesser influence on the development of the church’s theology, and until recently it has been somewhat neglected.

Further, the second half of James 2 appears at first glance to clash with certain statements by Paul on justification by faith. This, along with the less-developed Christology of James, led Martin Luther to question its validity as an expression of the gospel of Jesus, even calling it an epistle of straw.1 Most of the Reformers, however, even Luther’s protégé Melancthon (Loci Communes 9.5.12), along with most of the church throughout its history, took a more sober view and argued that James, when understood better, is not in conflict with Paul. The issue of James’s relationship to Paul’s theology will be examined in more detail both in the introduction and in the commentary on James 2. Indeed, a careful study of the letter leads to the conclusion that James’s insistence on works is precisely because faith is important. A faith devoid of works is a faith devoid of life; a living, saving faith is one that has an effect on behavior, and therefore it is essential that a person’s faith be a working faith.

It is in fact the thesis of this commentary that James should be seen as a book about true faith as opposed to a false one. Far from minimizing faith, the author of James regards faith as supremely important, and it is for this very reason that it is crucial that a person’s faith be genuine. People often deceive themselves, and it is quite possible for people to think that they have faith when in fact they are hypocrites. James, in the first chapter alone, uses three different words to describe this capacity for self-deceit: πλανάω (planaō, lead astray) in 1:16, παραλογίζομαι (paralogizomai, deceive) in 1:22, and ἀπατάω (apataō, deceive) in 1:26. Indeed, the issue runs all the way through James: the doubter’s double-mindedness in 1:6–8, empty religiosity in 1:26, the pretense of loving neighbor while showing favoritism in 2:8–9, the empty, dead faith of 2:20, the contradiction of blessing God and cursing his image-bearers in 3:9 and of boasting while being false to the truth in 3:14, and the pretense of the merchant in 4:13 are essentially all referring to forms of self-deception. But James wants those who profess to believe in Christ to be real disciples and manifest living faith, and he wants to awaken people who complacently think that they are believers but do not act like believers—in other words, those who have deceived themselves. Further, the threats to faith that can come by way of persecution, illness, and the delay of the coming of the Lord are met with exhortations to persevere, which is the stance of faith. Truly, James as a whole is a book about genuine faith. Surely, there are few times more in need of James’s insistence that faith be genuine than our own.

Controversy has continued to swirl about the book, however. Almost every aspect of interpretation, its author, its date, its original audience, its theological substructure, its organization (or lack of organization), its overall purpose (especially whether it is in any way a reaction to some form of Paulinism), its unity, and even the meaning of several of its words, phrases, and sentences have been heavily debated, and many matters remain without anything close to a scholarly consensus.

All these questions of introduction, authorship, dating, original audience, text, genre, and canonical acceptance are tangled together, and even the meaning of the text and the questions of introduction are interlinked. As a result, no obvious starting point presents itself. The question of authorship, for example, depends on when we date the letter and on the history of its use in the church, but dating is heavily dependent on identifying the original audience as well as the author, and the identity of the original audience is tied up with the author, date, and genre as well as the meaning of certain of James’s statements. Change any piece, and the whole puzzle must be assembled differently.

Nevertheless, the book gives us some clues about these things, and if we listen sympathetically to its message and pay close attention to the world in which it was written, we can, with some measure of confidence, answer many of those questions. Fortunately, the book’s central message is comprehensible regardless of its origins.

Character

Following the lead of Johnson (1995: 3–4), we will begin with a preliminary and brief attempt to listen to the voice of the letter and ascertain how it might fit in the story of the earliest church. This will give us a means of tentatively dating the letter. We can also determine how well it fits with what can be known of its putative author, whom the letter itself identifies as simply James, servant of God and the Lord Jesus Christ. As we will note shortly, this must refer to the James who appears in Acts as the leader of the Jerusalem church, whom Paul identifies as the brother of the Lord (Gal. 1:19).

1. James is interested primarily in practical Christianity. He assumes the content and saving power of the Christian gospel (1:21; see Theology below), but his interest is on how that is worked out in life, and he denounces a kind of faith that does not act accordingly. James also packs the letter with aphorisms that encapsulate godliness and thus has contributed many pithy and memorable phrases to the Christian’s wisdom vocabulary. The letter is also heavily imperatival, containing some fifty-four imperative verbs (plus a few negative aorist subjunctives that serve as prohibitions), and it displays an exhortational tone throughout.

Our Western Christian heritage has vigorously stressed the importance of doctrine, focusing on propositional truth as crucial for Christian identity, because ideas and thoughts make a difference in actions and relationships, particularly our relationship to God. But James reminds us that the ultimate purpose of Christian instruction, the goal of doctrine, is a godly character and righteous behavior. This purpose is also found in Jesus’s teaching and even in that of Paul (see, e.g., Rom. 8:29, conformed to his image; see also Phil. 2:12–13), but it has tended to become lost in our battles over precise doctrinal formulation. James reminds us that genuine faith is more than a matter of simply acknowledging the right concepts; it is right living in accordance with those concepts.

2. James exhibits throughout, both in vocabulary and in concept, a Jewish flavor. Many scholars have noticed the similarities between James and Jewish wisdom literature, especially Sirach (see excursus 3, James and Wisdom). And several scholars have pointed out that despite the distinctively literary quality of James’s Greek in several passages, many of its expressions have a pronounced Semitic cast (see MHT 4:116–20; see also Jewish Literary Background below). Also, James exhibits in its use of the OT a common Jewish exegetical procedure of interpreting one text by reference to another (James 2 interprets Gen. 15:6 by referring to Gen. 22).2 It uses features indicative of a Semitic rather than normal Greek style—for example, attributive genitives such as hearer of forgetfulness (= forgetful hearer) in 1:25, and attributed genitives such as abundance of wickedness (= abundant malice) in 1:21 and beauty of its face (= its lovely appearance) in 1:11. Even among ancient interpreters James’s use of parataxis (using and to join two sentences where literary Greek would use a subordinate clause) was noted (Theophylact, Commentary on James [PG 125:1152]). Further, the law of God is termed royal (or better, kingdom-related) and liberating. James’s concerns are reflective of OT ethical interests, particularly as seen in the prophets and wisdom literature. Its view of the law, like that seen in the Gospel of Matthew, is entirely positive; there is no development or even hint here of the Pauline experience of the law as an enemy. On the other hand, James’s focus is not at all on the Jewish distinctives of circumcision, food laws, or Sabbath observance, but on things such as showing no favoritism, loving neighbor, acting mercifully, caring for widows and orphans, being unselfish and honest, and persevering in prayer. Hence, the Jewishness that James exhibits is not an exclusionary kind that sees covenant in terms of ethnicity or ritual, but one that consists in godly behavior.

3. Although James only twice explicitly refers to Jesus Christ, this book is decidedly Christian. The Christian framework is implicit in several places, and the book as a whole expresses a Christian outlook (Cranfield 1965: 182–93). Particularly, James shares the Christian eschatological orientation, evident in that the motivation for ethics is chiefly the knowledge of the imminent coming of the Lord in judgment (1:9–10; 5:7–8; see Eschatology and Ethics below). Further, although perhaps some of the numerous echoes of Jesus’s teaching (see James and the Wisdom of Jesus below) can be explained as a common Jewish heritage, the sheer number of correspondences is so great and at times so distinctive that few scholars any longer doubt a substantial link between the Synoptic tradition and James, although that link probably is an indirect one.3 In only one instance does the similarity approach quotation of a Gospel text (the vocabulary of James 5:12 closely resembles that of Matt. 5:34–37, which also has an echo in 2 Cor. 1:17). But the content correspondence with the didactic material found mostly in Matthew and Luke is pronounced (see Hartin 1991).

4. James is multithematic in character. The letter does not evince a linear discussion of a single theme, but appears to be a collection of admonitions on faithful life, on what a life full of faith looks like. Nor is this collection linearly organized; instead, it interweaves several themes that are introduced in James 1 and then ties them together and examines the issues from various sides (see Structure below).

5. The Epistle of James, though clearly Christian, exhibits almost no christological development. James has no trace of the union with Christ theme seen in Paul’s letters. James also exhibits little redemptive-historical reflection and, although the fact of God’s mercy is central (2:13), shows hardly any interest in how the mercy of God is possible or how the death and resurrection of Jesus are related to God’s mercy. Likewise, James makes no mention of the Holy Spirit.4 Even the alleged reaction to something sounding vaguely like Paul in James 2 seems to be dealing not with the theological concerns of Paul, but with a lack of ethical consistency on the part of confessing believers, a problem often seen in Israel in the OT and one endemic to every age.

6. James exhibits a good command of Greek. Hellenistic literary imagery abounds, such as forest fires, ship rudders, horses and bits, astronomical phenomena (perhaps, but see the commentary on 1:17), mirrors, and life cycles. On the other hand, some of James’s imagery is narrowly Palestinian (saltwater springs, early and late rains) and unlikely to have been well understood outside Palestine.

      Several scholars have noted that the language of James is relatively polished Greek (Dibelius 1975: 34–38) of an almost literary character (Mayor 1897: ccxx–ccxxix; Ropes 1916: 25–27; Schlatter 1956: 77–84; Mussner 1975: 26–30; Baasland 1988: 3650–62). The author appears to be quite at home in Greek, using extensive alliteration (e.g., the alliterative π [p] in 1:2, 11, 17, 22) and wordplay (e.g., ἔργα [erga, works] versus ἀργή [argē, vain, ineffectual] = α-εργη [not-working] in 2:20; or the play on the double meaning of ἰός [ios, rust, poison] in 5:3). Further, he demonstrates a good vocabulary, using several words that are well known in classical literature but found nowhere else in either the NT or the LXX (e.g., ἐνάλιος [enalios, sea creature] in 3:7; κατήφεια [katēpheia, gloominess] in 4:9; see Mayor 1897: ccxviii), and he seems somewhat familiar with Greek popular imagery (Ropes 1916: 231). James also tends toward classical syntax in contrast to other NT writers (e.g., 5:12 preserves the classical accusative of oath with ὄμνυμι [omnymi, swear] as opposed to the more Semitic ἐν + dative in Matt. 5:34–35 or κατά + genitive in Heb. 6:13; see BDF §149).

It was therefore supposed by many scholars that the literary Greek style is prima facie evidence that the author is unlikely to have been a Galilean Jewish peasant. Presumably, a fairly highly educated Hellenistic Jew or perhaps even a Gentile convert with literary training could more easily write such a letter. However, some curious facts suggest a more complicated picture:

1. All but thirteen of James’s words are found in the LXX. Even some of James’s unique words seem to have Semitic roots. The word δίψυχος (dipsychos, double-minded), for example, which is not found in any extant literature prior to James,5 including the LXX, appears to be a reflection of a Semitic idiom such as that found in Ps. 119:113, where the psalmist declares his hatred for the sēʿăpîm [those of divided loyalties, i.e., the double-minded). Similarly, Ps. 12:2 condemns the double-hearted (lēb wālēb).6 Whatever the author’s background, he was well grounded in the Jewish Scriptures.

2. James sometimes uses idioms very unlike Greek and very like Semitic style.7 Particularly, James’s use of the genitive noun as an equivalent of an adjective (e.g., in 1:17 shadow of turning [= shifting shadow], or in 1:25 hearer of forgetfulness [= forgetful hearer], or in 2:4 judges of evil opinions [= judges who make bad decisions], or in 3:6 world of unrighteousness [= unrighteous world]) is difficult to attribute to anyone other than a person whose first language was Semitic (see BDF §165). Likewise, the omission of the article in certain phrases with a possessive pronoun (e.g., his tongue and his heart in 1:26; his way in 5:20) echoes Semitic style (BDF §259.3). James 5:17 evinces imitation of the Septuagintal style of rendering of the Hebrew infinitive absolute via a verb with the dative of its cognate noun,8 and in 5:18 the circumlocution heaven gave rain for God sent rain also suggests a Jewish author (like Matthew, which uses kingdom of heaven for kingdom of God).

3. James uses some words of Jewish background that were either unknown outside Jewish circles (e.g., gehenna in 3:6)9 or had special meanings (e.g., synagogue in 2:2).10 Further, James 5:20 alludes to Prov. 10:12 in a form not evident in the LXX translation but only in the Hebrew, suggesting familiarity with the content of the proverb apart from the common Greek translation.11

4. Although James frequently uses phrases that at first seem to evoke Greek rather than Jewish literature (such as cycle of generations in 3:6, or astronomical terms such as parallax and turning shadow in 1:17 [see the commentary on 1:17], or the illustrations of ships being steered by rudders and horses by bits), often the author either has failed to understand the original meaning of such phrases or has ignored that meaning and developed his own in a way that fits more with Semitic background than Greek. For example, much ink has been spilled over the alleged origins of cycle of generations, which the tongue sets afire, as being in the Orphic mysteries, but the cycles of birth, death, and rebirth (reincarnation) seem totally irrelevant to James’s use. It is more likely that the author is using terminology borrowed from Greek culture for his own ends rather than importing the full connotations of that terminology into his own exhortations. Likewise, the reference to God being without the shifting shadow, such as is apparent in the movement of the sun or the phases of the moon, probably has nothing to do with the astronomical phenomena or their astrological connotations. It is instead simply an example to contrast the unchanging constancy of the God of the Bible with the constant changes of everything worldly, including the astronomical entities that the Greco-Roman world perceived as gods. Such use has more the appearance of an outsider to a culture borrowing the terms but ignoring their insider connotations. This is exactly what we would expect of a Palestinian Jewish Christian who was competent in Greek and who was familiar with the Hellenistic cultic milieu while also being critical of it.

Another feature of James’s style is his frequent use of comparisons. He refers to tossed waves (1:6), plants withering (1:10–11), a corpse without breath (2:26), horse and bridle (3:3), ship’s rudder and pilot (3:4), a forest fire (3:5–6), fresh and bitter springs (3:11), grapevines and fig trees (3:12), evanescent mist (4:14), moth-eaten garments (5:2), rusted metal (5:3), and that peculiarity of Palestinian climate known as the early and the late (rains) (5:7).

Sometimes James’s vigorous and colorful rhetoric can be baffling, particularly if too much precision is expected. As will be argued in the commentary, this probably is not a reflection of overly subtle or secret meanings on the part of the author, but is simply the result of impassioned rhetoric, and it is a mistake to press the specific language too hard or to expect linguistic precision where none was intended. I will argue that James’s difficult passages often are not difficult at all in terms of the point that the author is making; it is only the imprecision of the comparisons or language that have us scratching our heads. Thus, as in the difficulty of the interlocutor’s statements in 2:18, or the odd face of his generation in 1:23, or the question-begging reference in 3:6 to the tongue, a fire, the wicked world, the tongue is set in our members, whatever it is that James exactly had in mind is not ultimately germane to his overall main point. It is when the oddity of an expression is pressed too hard that some of the more idiosyncratic interpretations arise, sometimes to the obfuscation of James’s main point.12 The evocativeness of the imagery serves James’s interest in motivating action or behavior. It is a mistake to read him as generating excessively subtle sophistries in order to win a theological argument or philosophical debate.

Here we may draw some preliminary conclusions. The letter is Christian, but it reflects a fairly primitive stage of theological development. James evinces no concern for ecclesial authority or structure; the importance of the substitutionary death of Christ receives no mention; there is no cultic identification with Christ, no discussion of how the inclusion of Gentiles affects theology, and no reflection on how Christ fulfilled OT expectations. Although James is concerned with the problem of Christian suffering, he, unlike 1 Peter or the letters of Paul, deals with it not by reference to the Christian’s identification with Christ’s suffering, but by way of simple exhortations to endure because it pleases God, produces maturity, and will someday be over. On the other hand, James reflects the peculiar orientation to godly life that appears in the recorded teaching of Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels (more on this below). Yet James at no point actually cites the Gospels (at least not in the form in which we have them) or even acknowledges that the material comes from Jesus or reflects the special interests of Jesus. It is as though James is imbued with the wisdom teaching of Jesus, but not in the written form in which we now find it. All this points to a time quite early in the life of the church, prior to the theological reflections of Paul, prior to the circulation of the Gospels, and prior to the authors of Hebrews, 1 Peter, and the Johannine materials, or at least prior to the time when these other writings began to have widespread and determinative influence.13

Authorship and Date

Because the questions of authorship and date are interdependent, I will discuss them together. The name James is the equivalent of the OT name Jacob (hence the adjective Jacobean to describe things pertaining to James). It is quite a common name in the NT as well as in Judaism generally,14 and thus the identification of the author as simply James, servant of God and the Lord Jesus Christ implies someone very well known in the church. Two of the twelve disciples were named James. The better known of these was James the son of Zebedee, brother of John, but this James was killed by Herod (Agrippa I), as we know from Acts 12:2. This happened sometime in (or possibly before) the year 44, which probably is too early for him to be the author of the letter.15 James the son of Alphaeus also was one of the Twelve, but nothing is known of him after the earliest days of the church, and if he had authored the letter, he would have needed further identification than just James. There was another man named James who might have been a disciple (not one of the Twelve) named James the Younger (or perhaps Little James or James the Less), but he is known only by the fact that his mother was one of the witnesses of the crucifixion, which makes him even less known than James the son of Alphaeus (unless it was the same person). The only James who seems to fit, therefore, is the James who was leader of the church in Jerusalem, indicated in Acts 12:17 and elsewhere, and whom Paul mentions in Gal. 1:19, calling him James the Lord’s brother. He is the James named among the family of Jesus in Mark 6:3. Not all students of this letter conclude that James the brother of Jesus wrote it, and shortly I will discuss the issue of whether James is pseudepigraphical, but even those scholars who do not think that James the Lord’s brother wrote this letter acknowledge that he is the James intended in the salutation and in whose name it was written.

Who Was James?

The person named James who was leader of the church in Jerusalem, Paul knows as the brother of the Lord (Gal. 1:19 [cf. 1 Cor. 9:5, which mentions brothers of the Lord as among the church leaders who are married]). Later Christian writings (e.g., Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 2.23) usually refer to him as James the Just (Ἰάκωβος ὁ δίκαιος, Iakōbos ho dikaios [perhaps better translated James the Righteous]). This James appears three times in Acts, always in a prominent role. After the death of James the brother of John (recorded in Acts 12:2), and after Peter is miraculously delivered from prison, Peter tells the people to inform James and the brothers of what has happened (Acts 12:17), which surely indicates this James is already a prominent leader of the church. At the apostolic council in Acts 15:12–21 (probably occurring about five years later, in 49), James is the spokesman for the Jerusalem eldership, and it is he who sends the letter of Acts 15:23–29. Finally, in Acts 21:18–20 it is this James to whom Paul gives his report.

He probably is also included in Acts 1:14 as among those waiting in Jerusalem for the Holy Spirit, among whom are the mother of Jesus, and his brothers. This James is also named by Paul in Gal. 2:1–10 as a leader of the church in Jerusalem, and in 1 Cor. 15:7 as one of the notable witnesses to whom Jesus appeared after his resurrection. The text of 1 Cor. 15:5–7 is also informative because of how Paul identifies those to whom Jesus appeared:

He appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers. . . . Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles.

This shows that the term apostles is applied more broadly than just to the Twelve, and presumably it includes the person named James who was not one of the Twelve, which is unlikely to be anyone other than James the leader of the church in Jerusalem. Likewise, Paul in Gal. 1:19 directly refers to this James as an apostle: I saw none of the other apostles except James the Lord’s brother.

The author of Jude also mentions James by identifying himself simply as the brother of James, which could only be a reference to this James, the brother of Jesus, the leader of the church at Jerusalem from 44–62.16

We also have references to James from outside Christianity in comments by Josephus (Ant. 20.9.1 §§197–203), who identifies him as a leader of the Christian movement and notes his death in 62 as one of the atrocities leading up to the catastrophe of the Jewish war of 66–70. Some scholars have debated whether this is one of the Christian interpolations added into Josephus by Christian scribes. However, Josephus’s words here speak of James and the Christian movement only tangentially; his main focus is the hasty and unjust behavior of Ananus and his subsequent deposal. If this is a Christian interpolation, it is odd that the only mention of Jesus identifies him as one who is called the Christ. It is likely that this text serves as evidence that among non-Christian Jews of the mid- to late first century, James may have been at least as well known as Jesus of Nazareth. The closely similar but not identical account related in Eusebius (Hist. eccl. 2.23.21–24) generally confirms the historical plausibility of Josephus at this point. On the other hand, the story in Hegesippus’s account (which Eusebius recounts a little earlier in Hist. eccl. 2.23.4–18) has a more fanciful character and bears the marks of forced harmonization.17

The Epistle of James receives little mention in extant literature until the late second and early third centuries (see External Indications and the Church’s Reception below), by which time we begin to see traces of its wider circulation. But quite apart from this letter, James became something of a favorite hero for a number of diverse groups, both within and without the pale of the orthodox church. Eusebius (Hist. eccl. 2.1.2–5) notes that Clement of Alexandria spoke of James as the bishop or overseer of the Jerusalem church. Further, Clement’s Hypotyposeis (books 6–7) describes James’s martyrdom of being thrown from a parapet. (Although there are some difficulties in harmonizing this account with that of Josephus, both accounts agree on the timing.)

Other, later material on James is more dubious historically. The gnostic Gospel of Thomas found in the library at Nag Hammadi has Jesus telling his disciples to go to James the righteous, for whose sake heaven and earth came into being (12). More reasonable but still excessive is