Collins Cobuild English Grammar

By HarperCollins UK

This major new edition of the Collins COBUILD English Grammar is a modern, global and learner-focussed grammar reference, aimed at learners and teachers of English.

Thoroughly updated, to take into account significant changes in grammar over recent years, the Collins COBUILD English Grammar is based on the evidence of the 4 billion-word Collins corpus, and is an invaluable guide to the English language as it is written and spoken today, in all areas of the world.

With a user-friendly style and simple explanations, the Collins COBUILD English Grammar provides a comprehensive and authoritative guide to modern English grammar, using grammar terms that learners will understand.

Notes on the various situations in which certain grammar points typically appear, new examples, and information on the key differences between British and American grammar, make the Collins COBUILD English Grammar is the only fully-updated and truly global English grammar available.

• Language: English
• Publisher: HarperCollins UK
• Release date: Apr 1, 2013
• ISBN: 9780007461288

Book preview

1        Referring to people and things:

nouns, pronouns, and determiners

Introduction to the noun phrase

1.1      At its simplest, language is used to talk about people and things. People do this by using words in a variety of ways, for example to make statements, to ask questions, and to give orders. The words chosen are arranged into groups, either around a noun or around a verb. They are called noun phrases and verb phrases.

Noun phrases tell us which people or things are being talked about. Verb phrases tell us what is being said about them, for example what they are doing.

Chapters 1 and 2 of this grammar deal with noun phrases. For information about verb phrases, see Chapter 3.

position

1.2      A noun phrase can be the subject or object of a verb, it can follow a linking verb, or it can be the object of a preposition.

Babies cry when they are hungry.

I couldn’t feel anger against him.

They were teachers.

Let us work together in peace.

common nouns and proper nouns

1.3      You use a noun phrase to talk about someone or something by naming them. You do this by using a general name, called a noun or common noun, or by using a specific name, called a proper noun.

Proper nouns are mainly used for people, places, and events.

Mary likes strawberries.

I went to Drexel University and then I went to Pittsburgh to work for a psychiatrist.

We flew to Geneva with British Airways.

See paragraphs 1.52 to 1.58 for more information about proper nouns.

determiners with common nouns

1.4      If you use a common noun, you are saying that the person or thing you are talking about can be put in a set with others that are similar in some way.

If you just want to say that the person or thing is in that set, you use an indefinite determiner with the common noun.

I met a girl who was a student there.

Have you got any comment to make about that?

There are some diseases that are clearly inherited.

If you want to show which member of a set you are talking about, you use a definite determiner with a common noun.

I put my arm round her shoulders.

…the destruction of their city.

She came in to see me this morning.

See paragraphs 1.162 to 1.251 for more information about determiners, and paragraphs 1.13 to 1.92 for more information about nouns.

personal and demonstrative pronouns

1.5      You may decide not to name the person or thing and to use a pronoun rather than a proper noun or common noun.

You usually do this because the person or thing has already been named, so you refer to them by using a personal pronoun or a demonstrative pronoun.

Max will believe us, won’t he?

‘Could I speak to Sue, please?’–‘I’m sorry, she doesn’t work here now.’

Some people have servants to cook for them.

This led to widespread criticism.

See paragraphs 1.95 to 1.106 for more information about personal pronouns, and paragraphs 1.124 to 1.127 for more information about demonstrative pronouns.

indefinite pronouns

1.6      You may decide not to name the person or thing at all, for example because you do not want to, you think it is not important, you do not know, or you want to be vague or mysterious while telling a story. In such cases you use an indefinite pronoun, which does not refer to any particular person or thing.

I had to say something.

In this country nobody trusts anyone.

A moment later, his heart seemed to stop as he sensed the sudden movement of someone behind him.

See paragraphs 1.128 to 1.141 for more information about indefinite pronouns.

adding extra information

1.7      If you want to give more information about the person or thing you are talking about, rather than just giving their general or specific name, you can use a modifier such as an adjective, or you can add extra information in the form of a phrase or a clause, for example.

modifiers

1.8      Most adjectives are used as modifiers. Nouns are also often used as modifiers.

…a big city.

…blue ink.

He opened the car door.

…the oil industry.

See paragraphs 2.2 to 2.168 for more information about adjectives, and paragraphs 2.169 to 2.174 for more information about noun modifiers.

adding information after the noun

1.9      You can add a prepositional phrase, a relative clause, an adverb of place or time, or a to-infinitive after the noun.

…a girl in a dark grey dress.

…the man who employed me.

…the room upstairs.

…the desire to kill.

Adjectives and participles are also sometimes used after the noun, usually in combination with other words.

…the Minister responsible for national security.

…the three cards lying on the table.

See paragraphs 2.272 to 2.302 for more details about information that is added after the noun.

1.10    In particular, prepositional phrases beginning with of are very common, because they can express many different kinds of relationship between the two noun phrases.

…strong feelings of jealousy.

…a picture of a house.

…the rebuilding of the old hospital.

…the daughter of the village cobbler.

…problems of varying complexity.

…the arrival of the police.

For more information about the use of of in the noun phrase see paragraphs 2.277 to 2.283.

linking noun phrases and linking words within them

1.11    If you want to refer separately to more than one person or thing, or you want to describe them in more than one way, you link noun phrases using the conjunctions and, or, or but. Sometimes you use a comma instead of and, or just put one word next to another.

…a table and chair.

…his obligations with regard to Amanda, Robert and Matthew.

…some fruit or cheese afterwards.

…her long black skirt.

See paragraphs 8.171 to 8.201 for more information about the use of conjunctions to link noun phrases and words within noun phrases.

numbers and quantity expressions

1.12    If you want to say how many things you are talking about, or how much of something there is, you use numbers and quantity expressions.

Last year I worked seven days a week fourteen hours a day.

She drinks lots of coffee.

Numbers are dealt with in paragraphs 2.208 to 2.239, and quantity expressions are dealt with in 2.175 to 2.193.

Identifying people and things: nouns

1.13    A noun is used to identify a person or thing. In this chapter six main types of noun are described. They are classified according to whether they have a plural form, whether they need a determiner in front of them, and whether they occur with a singular verb or a plural verb when they are the subject of the verb.

The six types are:

Many nouns have a number of different meanings, and so can be, for example, a countable noun for one meaning, an uncountable noun for another, and a singular noun for another.

There are a few other groups of nouns with special features. These are dealt with in paragraphs 1.59 to 1.92.

capital letters

1.14    Most nouns do not begin with a capital letter, unless they are used to start a sentence. However, the following types of noun are always spelled with a capital letter:

proper nouns or names

…my sister Elizabeth.

I love reading Shakespeare.

I’ll be in the office on Monday.

I think he’s gone to London.

For more information on proper nouns, see paragraphs 1.52 to 1.58. Proper nouns that are time expressions are dealt with in Chapter 4, and those that are place names in Chapter 6.

nouns that identify people of a particular nationality, or languages

Can you think of some typical problems experienced by Germans learning English?

nouns that are the name of a particular product

He drives a Porsche.

Put a bit of Sellotape across it.

Things that can be counted: countable nouns

1.15    Many nouns have two forms, the singular form, which is used to refer to one person or thing, and the plural form, which is used to refer to more than one person or thing.

These nouns refer to people or things that can be counted. You can put numbers in front of them.

…book…books.

…day…days.

…three brothers.

…ten minutes.

These nouns make up the largest group of nouns in English. They are called countable nouns.

noun–verb agreement

1.16    When you use the singular form of a countable noun as the subject of a verb, you use a singular verb. When you use the plural form of a countable noun as the subject, you use a plural verb.

A dog likes to eat far more meat than a human being.

Bigger dogs cost more.

use of determiners

1.17    Countable nouns have a determiner in front of them when they are used in the singular.

He got into the car and started the motor.

They left the house to go for a walk after lunch.

When you use the plural form of a countable noun to talk about something in general, you do not use a determiner.

They all live in big houses.

Most classrooms have computers.

However, if you are specifying a particular instance of something, you need to use a determiner.

The houses in our street are all identical. Our computers can give you all the relevant details.

list of countable nouns

1.18    Here is a list of some common countable nouns:

accident

account

actor

address

adult

animal

answer

apartment

article

artist

baby

bag

ball

bank

battle

beach

bed

bell

bill

bird

boat

book

bottle

box

boy

bridge

brother

bus

bush

camp

captain

car

card

case

castle

cat

chair

chapter

chest

child

cigarette

city

class

club

coat

college

computer

corner

country

crowd

cup

daughter

day

desk

doctor

dog

door

dream

dress

driver

ear

edge

effect

egg

election

engine

eye

face

factory

farm

father

field

film

finger

foot

friend

game

garden

gate

girl

group

gun

hall

hand

handle

hat

head

heart

hill

horse

hospital

hotel

hour

house

husband

idea

island

issue

job

journey

judge

key

king

kitchen

lady

lake

library

line

list

machine

magazine

man

meal

meeting

member

message

method

minute

mistake

model

month

motor

mouth

nation

neck

newspaper

office

page

park

party

path

picture

plan

plane

plant

problem

product

programme

project

ring

river

road

room

scheme

school

ship

shirt

shock

shop

sister

smile

son

spot

star

station

store

stream

street

student

table

task

teacher

tent

thought

tour

town

valley

village

walk

wall

week

window

woman

yard

year

Note that many of these nouns have some meanings in which they are uncountable nouns, but they are countable nouns in their commonest meanings.

singular and plural forms

1.19    For most countable nouns the plural form has -s at the end, which distinguishes it from the singular form.

…bed… beds.

…car… cars.

Some countable nouns have other differences between the singular and plural forms.

…bus…buses.

…lady… ladies.

…calf…calves.

…man…men.

…mouse…mice.

For full information about the plural forms of countable nouns, see the Reference Section.

same form for singular and plural

1.20    Some countable nouns have the same form for both singular and plural.

…a sheep.

…nine sheep.

Many of these nouns refer to animals or fish; others are more varied in meaning:

bison

deer

elk

greenfly

grouse

moose

reindeer

sheep

~

cod

fish

goldfish

halibut

mullet

salmon

shellfish

trout

whitebait

~

aircraft

hovercraft

spacecraft

~

crossroads

dice

fruit

gallows

grapefruit

insignia

mews

offspring

series

species

~

bourgeois

chassis

corps

patois

précis

rendezvous

singular form with plural meaning

1.21    The names of many animals and birds have two forms, one singular and one plural. However, when you are referring to them in the context of hunting or when you are saying that there are large numbers of them, it is quite common to use the form without -s, even though you are referring to several animals or birds.

We went up north to hunt deer.

Note that the plural form of the verb is used when several animals or birds are the subject of the sentence, even if you use the form without -s.

Zebra are a more difficult prey.

Similarly, when you are referring to a large number of trees or plants growing together, you can use the singular form of their name. When you are referring to a small number or to individual trees or plants, you usually use the form with -s.

…the rows of willow and cypress which lined the creek.

…the poplars and willows along the Peshawar Road.

BE CREATIVE

1.22    Although some names of animals, birds, trees, and plants are commonly used in the singular form with plural meaning, in fact all such names can be used in this way.

Things not usually counted: uncountable nouns

1.23    Some nouns refer to general things such as qualities, substances, processes, and topics rather than to individual items or events. These nouns have only one form, are not used with numbers, and are not usually used with the determiners the, a, or an.

…a boy or girl with intelligence.

Make sure everyone has enough food and drink.

…new techniques in industry and agriculture.

I talked with people about religion, death, marriage, money, and happiness.

These nouns are called uncountable nouns.

noun–verb agreement

1.24    When you use an uncountable noun as the subject of a verb, you use a singular form of the verb.

Love makes you do strange things.

They believed that poverty was a threat to world peace.

Electricity is potentially dangerous.

list of uncountable nouns

1.25    Here is a list of some common uncountable nouns:

absence

access

age

agriculture

anger

atmosphere

beauty

behaviour

cancer

capacity

childhood

china

comfort

concern

confidence

courage

death

democracy

depression

design

duty

earth

education

electricity

energy

environment

equipment

evil

existence

experience

failure

faith

fashion

fear

finance

fire

flesh

food

freedom

fun

ground

growth

happiness

health

help

history

ice

independence

industry

insurance

intelligence

joy

justice

labour

loneliness

love

luck

magic

marriage

mercy

music

nature

paper

patience

peace

philosophy

pleasure

policy

poverty

power

pride

protection

purity

rain

reality

relief

religion

respect

rice

safety

salt

sand

security

silence

sleep

strength

snow

spite

status

stuff

teaching

technology

time

trade

training

transport

travel

trust

truth

violence

waste

water

wealth

weather

welfare

wind

work

worth

youth

BE CAREFUL

1.26    There are some words that are uncountable nouns in English, but that refer to things that are considered countable in other languages.

Here is a list of the most common uncountable nouns of this type:

advice

baggage

furniture

hair

homework

information

knowledge

luggage

machinery

money

news

progress

research

spaghetti

traffic

quantifying: some rice, a bowl of rice

1.27    Although uncountable nouns refer to things that cannot be counted and are not used with numbers, you often want to talk about an amount of something that is expressed by an uncountable noun.

Sometimes, you can do this by putting an indefinite determiner such as all, enough, little, or some in front of the noun.

Do you have enough money?

There’s some chocolate cake over there.

For more information on indefinite determiners that can be used with uncountable nouns, see paragraph 1.225.

You can also put a quantity expression in front of the noun. For example, when you refer to water you can say drops of water, a cup of water, four gallons of water, and so on.

The use of quantity expressions with uncountable nouns is explained in paragraphs 2.194 to 2.207.

mass nouns

1.28    When you are sure that your reader or hearer will understand that a quantity of something is being referred to, you do not need to use a quantity expression.

For example, in a restaurant you can ask for three cups of coffee, but you can also ask for three coffees because the person you are talking to will know that you mean three cups of coffee. In this way, the uncountable noun coffee has become countable.

Nouns used in this way are called mass nouns.

1.29    Mass nouns are often used to refer to quantities of a particular kind of food or drink.

We spent two hours talking over coffee and biscuits in her study.

We stopped for a coffee at a small café.

1.30    Similarly, some uncountable nouns can be mass nouns when they refer to types of something. For example, cheese is usually an uncountable noun but you can talk about a large range of cheeses.

…plentiful cheap beer.

…profits from low-alcohol beers.

We were not allowed to buy wine or spirits at lunch time.

We sell a wide variety of wines and liqueurs.

Mass nouns referring to different types of a substance are mainly used in technical contexts. For example steel is nearly always an uncountable noun, but in contexts where it is important to distinguish between different kinds of steel it can be a mass noun.

…imports of European steel.

…the use of small amounts of nitrogen in making certain steels.

list of mass nouns

1.31    The following is a list of frequently used mass nouns:

adhesive

beer

brandy

bread

cake

cheese

claret

cloth

coal

coffee

cognac

coke

cotton

curry

deodorant

detergent

disinfectant

dye

fabric

fertilizer

fuel

fur

gin

glue

ink

insecticide

iron

jam

jelly

juice

lager

liqueur

lotion

material

meat

medicine

metal

milk

oil

ointment

ore

paint

perfume

pesticide

plastic

poison

preservative

ribbon

salad

sauce

sherry

soap

soil

soup

steel

sugar

tea

vodka

whisky

wine

wood

wool

yarn

yoghurt

nouns that are uncountable and countable

1.32    There are also some other nouns that can be uncountable nouns when they refer to a thing in general, and countable nouns when they refer to a particular instance of it.

Some nouns are commonly both uncountable nouns and countable nouns. For example, victory refers to the idea of winning in general but a victory refers to a particular occasion when someone wins.

He worked long and hard and finally led his team to victory.

…his victory in the Australian Grand Prix.

Many parents were alarmed to find themselves in open conflict with the church.

Hundreds of people have died in ethnic conflicts.

Some uncountable nouns are rarely or never countable nouns; that is, they do not occur in a plural form, or with a number.

…a collection of fine furniture.

We found Alan weeping with relief and joy.

He saved money by refusing to have a telephone.

uncountable nouns ending in -s

1.33    Some nouns that end in -s and look as if they are plural are in fact uncountable nouns. This means that when they are the subject of a verb, the verb is in the singular.

These nouns refer mainly to subjects of study, activities, games, and diseases.

Physics is fun.

Politics plays a large part in village life.

Economics is the oldest of the social sciences.

Darts is a very competitive sport.

Measles is in most cases a relatively harmless disease.

Here are three lists of uncountable nouns ending in -s.

These nouns refer to subjects of study and activities:

acoustics

aerobics

aerodynamics

aeronautics

athletics

classics

economics

electronics

genetics

gymnastics

linguistics

logistics

mathematics

mechanics

obstetrics

physics

politics

statistics

thermodynamics

Note that some of these nouns are occasionally used as plural nouns, especially when you are talking about a particular person’s work or activities.

His politics are clearly right-wing.

These nouns refer to games:

billiards

bowls

cards

darts

draughts

skittles

tiddlywinks

These nouns refer to diseases:

diabetes

measles

mumps

rabies

rickets

shingles

When there is only one of something: singular nouns

1.34    There are certain things in the world that are unique. There are other things that you almost always want to talk about one at a time. This means that there are some nouns, or more often some meanings of nouns, for which only a singular form is used.

When a noun is used with such a meaning, it is called a singular noun. Singular nouns are always used with a determiner, because they behave like the singular form of a countable noun.

noun–verb agreement

1.35    When you use a singular noun as the subject of a verb, you use a singular form of the verb.

The sun was shining.

The atmosphere is very relaxed.

things that are unique

1.36    Some singular nouns refer to one specific thing and therefore are used with the. Some of these nouns, in fact, refer to something of which there is only one in the world.

There were huge cracks in the ground.

The moon had not yet reached my window.

Burning tanks threw great spirals of smoke into the air.

He’s always thinking about the past and worrying about the future.

using the context

1.37    Other singular nouns can be used to refer to one thing only when it is obvious from the context what you are referring to. For example, if you are in Leeds and say I work at the university, you will almost certainly mean Leeds University.

However, in the following examples it is not clear exactly who or what the singular noun refers to, because there is not enough context.

In many countries the market is small numerically.

Their company looks good only because the competition looks bad.

You’ve all missed the point.

Unless it is made clear which goods or products are being talked about, it is not possible for the reader or listener to be sure which group of potential buyers the market refers to. Similarly it is not possible to know exactly which company or group of companies the competition refers to. In the last example, the speaker is presumably going to state what he or she thinks the point is.

used in verb + object idioms

1.38    There are some activities that you do not usually do more than once at a time. The nouns that refer to them are usually the object of a verb, and are used with the determiner a.

In this structure the verb has very little meaning and the noun carries most of the meaning of the whole structure. For more information about these verb + object idioms, see paragraphs 3.32 to 3.45.

I went and had a wash.

Bruno gave it a try.

Some singular nouns are used so regularly with a particular verb that they have become fixed phrases and are idiomatic.

I’d like very much for you to have a voice in the decision.

Isn’t it time we made a move?

singular noun structures

1.39    There are two special kinds of structure in which a singular noun is used.

A singular noun is sometimes used with the determiner a after a linking verb. See paragraphs 3.126 to 3.181 for more information about linking verbs.

Decision-making is an art.

The quickest way was by using the car. It was a risk but he decided it had to be taken.

They were beginning to find Griffiths’ visits rather a strain.

A singular noun is sometimes used with the determiner the, followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with of.

Comedy is the art of making people laugh.

Old machines will be replaced by newer ones to reduce the risk of breakdown.

He collapsed under the strain of a heavy workload.

This group includes nouns used metaphorically; see paragraph 1.64 for more details.

Some singular nouns are always used to refer to one particular quality or thing, but are rarely used alone; that is, they need to be specified in some way by the use of supporting material. They can be used with a number of different determiners.

There was a note of satisfaction in his voice.

Bessie covered the last fifty yards at a tremendous pace.

Simon allowed his pace to slacken.

She was simply incapable of behaving in a rational and considered manner.

…their manner of rearing their young.

Nouns that are rarely used alone without supporting material are discussed in detail in paragraphs 1.59 to 1.65.

USAGE NOTE

1.40    Some nouns are used in the singular with a particular meaning only in an idiomatic phrase. They have the appearance of singular nouns, but they are not used as freely as singular nouns.

What happens down there is none of my business.

It’s a pity I can’t get to him.

Referring to more than one thing: plural nouns

1.41    There are some things that are considered to be plural rather than singular, so some nouns have only a plural form. For example, you buy goods, but not a good. These nouns are called plural nouns.

Other nouns have only a plural form when they are used with a particular meaning. For example, an official meeting between American and Russian leaders is usually referred to as talks rather than as a talk. In these meanings, these nouns are also called plural nouns.

Union leaders met the company for wage talks on October 9.

It is inadvisable to sell goods on a sale or return basis.

Take care of your clothes.

The weather conditions were the same.

All proceeds are going to charity.

Employees can have meals on the premises.

Note that some plural nouns do not end in -s: for example clergy, police, poultry, and vermin.

noun–verb agreement

1.42    When you use a plural noun as the subject of a verb, you use a plural form of the verb.

Expenses for attending meetings are sometimes claimed.

The foundations were shaking.

Refreshments were on sale in the café.

Attempts were made where resources were available.

use with modifiers

1.43    You do not usually use numbers in front of plural nouns. You can, however, use some indefinite determiners such as some or many. For more information about the indefinite determiners that can be used with plural nouns, see the section beginning at paragraph 1.223.

Some plural nouns usually have a definite determiner in front of them, because they are specific; some never have a determiner at all, because they are very general; and some are rarely used alone without extra information in the form of a phrase or a clause, for example, because they need supporting material.

The lists in the following two paragraphs contain some common plural nouns that are frequently used in one of these ways. Many of them have other meanings in which they are countable nouns.

with or without determiners

1.44    Some plural nouns are most commonly used with the.

Things are much worse when the rains come.

The authorities are concerned that the cocaine may be part of an international drug racket.

The coach tour of Gran Canaria was a wonderfully relaxing way to see the sights.

Here is a list of plural nouns that are most commonly used with the:

authorities

foundations

fruits

heavens

mains

odds

pictures

races

rains

sights

waters

wilds

Some plural nouns are most commonly used with a possessive determiner such as my or his.

It offended her feelings.

My travels up the Dalmation coast began in Dubrovnik.

This only added to his troubles.

Here is a list of plural nouns that are most commonly used with a possessive determiner:

activities

attentions

feelings

likes

movements

reactions

terms

travels

troubles

wants

Some plural nouns are most commonly used without a determiner.

There were one or two cases where people returned goods.

There is only one applicant, which simplifies matters.

They treated us like vermin.

Here is a list of plural nouns that are most commonly used without a determiner:

airs

appearances

events

expenses

figures

goods

matters

refreshments

riches

solids

talks

vermin

Some plural nouns can be used both with or without determiners.

The house was raided by police.

We called the police.

A luxury hotel was to be used as headquarters.

The city has been his headquarters for five years.

We didn’t want it to dampen spirits which were required to remain positive.

The last few miles really lifted our spirits.

Here is a list of plural nouns that can be used with or without a determiner:

arms

basics

brains

clergy

costs

directions

essentials

greens

grounds

handcuffs

headquarters

interests

looks

means

morals

papers

particulars

people

police

poultry

premises

proceeds

rates

resources

specifics

spirits

supplies

talks

thanks

tracks

troops

values

modifiers and other forms of extra information

1.45    Some plural nouns are rarely used alone without a modifier, or some other form of extra information, because they need supporting material.

He doesn’t tolerate bad manners.

Our country’s coastal defences need improving.

…the hidden pressures of direct government funding.

Here is a list of plural nouns that are rarely used alone without a modifier or some other extra information:

affairs

conditions

defences

demands

details

effects

forces

hopes

lines

manners

materials

matters

pressures

proportions

quarters

relations

remains

sands

services

thoughts

wastes

ways

words

works

writings

typical meanings: clothes and tools

1.46    Two special groups of nouns are usually plural: nouns referring to clothes and some other things that people wear, and nouns referring to tools and some other things that people use.

This is because some clothes and tools, such as trousers and scissors, are made up of two similar parts.

She wore brown trousers and a green sweater.

He took off his glasses.

…using the pliers from the toolbox.

When you want to refer to these items in general, or to an unspecified number of them, you use the plural form with no determiner.

Never poke scissors into a light bulb socket.

The man was watching the train through binoculars.

Here is a list of some plural nouns that refer to clothes and other things that people wear:

braces

briefs

cords

dungarees

glasses

jeans

jodhpurs

knickers

leggings

overalls

panties

pants

pyjamas

shorts

slacks

specs

spectacles

sunglasses

tights

trousers

trunks

underpants

Here is a list of plural nouns that refer to tools and other things that people use:

binoculars

clippers

compasses

dividers

nutcrackers

pincers

pliers

scales

scissors

secateurs

shears

tongs

tweezers

When you want to refer to a single piece of clothing or a single tool, you use some or a pair of in front of the noun. You refer to more than one item by using a number or a quantity expression with pairs of.

I got some scissors out of the kitchen drawer.

I went out to buy a pair of scissors.

He was wearing a pair of old grey trousers.

Liza has three pairs of jeans.

You can also use a pair of when you are talking about things such as gloves, shoes, and socks that typically occur in twos.

…a pair of new gloves.

A possessive determiner such as my can be used instead of a.

…his favourite pair of shoes.

When you use a pair of with a noun in the plural form, the verb is singular if it is in the same clause. If the verb is in a following relative clause, it is usually plural.

It is likely that a new pair of shoes brings more happiness to a child than a new car brings to a grown-up.

I always wear a pair of long pants underneath, or a pair of pyjamas is just as good.

He put on a pair of brown shoes, which were waiting there for him.

He wore a pair of earphones, which were plugged into a radio.

You use a plural pronoun after a pair of.

She went to the wardrobe, chose a pair of shoes, put them on and leaned back in the chair.

He brought out a pair of dark glasses and handed them to Walker.

Referring to groups: collective nouns

1.47    Some nouns in English refer to a group of people or things. These nouns are called collective nouns. They have only one form, but many collective nouns have other meanings in which they are countable nouns with two forms.

singular or plural verb

1.48    When you use a collective noun, you can use either a singular verb or a plural verb after it.

You choose a singular verb if you think of the group as a single unit, and a plural verb if you think of the group as a number of individuals.

Our little group is complete again.

A second group are those parents who feel that we were too harsh.

Our family isn’t poor any more.

My family are all perfectly normal. The enemy was moving slowly to the east. The enemy were visibly cracking.

His arguments were confined to books which the public was unlikely to read. The public were deceived by the newspapers.

     In American English, it is more usual to use a singular verb unless the sentence contains an element that clearly refers to more than one person or thing.

The names of many organizations are collective nouns, and can be used with a singular or a plural verb.

The BBC is sending him to Tuscany for the summer.

The BBC are planning to use the new satellite next month.

England was leading 18-0 at half-time.

England are seeking alternatives for their B team.

     American English uses a singular verb for these.

GE reports its second-quarter financial results on July 16.

New England is going to sign him to a long-term contract.

If you want to refer back to a collective noun, you choose a singular pronoun or determiner if the previous verb is singular, and a plural pronoun or determiner if the previous verb is plural.

The government has said it would wish to do this only if there was no alternative.

The government have made up their minds that they’re going to win.

USAGE NOTE

1.49    Note that the words bacteria, data, and media are now often used as collective nouns, that is with either a singular or a plural verb and no change in form. Some careful speakers think they should only be used with a plural verb because they have the rare singular forms bacterium, datum, and medium and are therefore countable nouns.

Medieval Arabic data show that the length of the day has been increasing more slowly than expected.

Our latest data shows more firms are hoping to expand in the near future.

BE CAREFUL

1.50    Although you can use a plural verb after a collective noun, these nouns do not behave like the plural forms of countable nouns. For example, you cannot use numbers in front of them. You cannot say Three enemy were killed. You have to say Three of the enemy were killed.

list of collective nouns

1.51    Here is a list of common collective nouns:

aristocracy

army

audience

bacteria

brood

cast

committee

community

company

council

crew

data

enemy

family

flock

gang

government

group

herd

jury

media

navy

nobility

opposition

panel

press

proletariat

public

staff

team

Some collective nouns are also partitives (nouns that are used to talk about a quantity of something). For example, you talk about a flock of sheep and a herd of cattle. See paragraph 2.198 for more information about these.

Referring to people and things by name: proper nouns

1.52    When you talk about a particular person, you can use their name. Names are usually called proper nouns.

People’s names are spelled with a capital letter, and do not have a determiner in front of them.

…Michael Hall.

…Jenny.

…Smith.

Ways of using people’s names when you are speaking to them directly are explained in paragraphs 9.95 to 9.99.

1.53    Sometimes a person’s name is used to refer to something they create. You can refer to a painting, sculpture, or book by a particular person by using the person’s name like a countable noun. You still spell it with a capital letter.

In those days you could buy a Picasso for £300.

I was looking at their Monets and Matisses.

I’m reading an Agatha Christie at the moment.

You can refer to music composed or performed by a particular person by using the person’s name like an uncountable noun.

I remembered it while we were listening to the Mozart.

…instead of playing Chopin and Stravinsky all the time.

relationship nouns

1.54    Nouns that refer to relationships between the people in a family, such as mother, dad, aunt, and grandpa, can also be used like names to address people or refer to them. They are then spelled with a capital letter.

I’m sure Mum will be pleased.

titles

1.55    Words that show someone’s social status or job are called titles. They are spelled with a capital letter.

You use a title in front of a person’s name, usually their surname or their full name, when you are talking about them in a fairly formal way or are showing respect to them.

…Doctor Barker.

…Lord Curzon.

…Captain Jack Langtry.

…Mrs Ford.

Here is a list of the most common titles that are used before names:

Admiral

Archbishop

Baron

Baroness

Bishop

Brother

Captain

Cardinal

Colonel

Congressman

Constable

Corporal

Dame

Doctor

Emperor

Father

General

Governor

Imam

Inspector

Justice

King

Lady

Lieutenant

Lord

Major

Miss

Mr

Mrs

Ms

Nurse

Police Constable

Pope

President

Prince

Princess

Private

Professor

Queen

Rabbi

Representative

Saint

Senator

Sergeant

Sir

Sister

A few titles, such as King, Queen, Prince, Princess, Sir, and Lady, can be followed just by the person’s first name.

…Queen Elizabeth.

…Prince Charles’ eldest son.

Sir Michael has made it very clear indeed.

Ways of using titles when you are speaking to people directly are explained in paragraphs 9.97 and 9.98.

titles used without names

1.56    Determiners, other modifiers, and phrases with of are sometimes used with titles, and the person’s name is omitted.

…Her Majesty the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh.

…the Archbishop of Canterbury.

…the President of the United States.

…the Bishop of Birmingham.

titles used as countable nouns

1.57    Most words that are titles can also be countable nouns, usually without a capital letter.

…lawyers, scholars, poets, presidents and so on.

…a foreign prince.

Maybe he’ll be a Prime Minister one day.

other proper nouns

1.58    The names of organizations, institutions, ships, magazines, books, plays, paintings, and other unique things are also proper nouns and are spelled with capital letters.

…British Broadcasting Corporation

…Birmingham University.

They are sometimes used with the or another determiner.

…the United Nations …the Labour Party …the University of Birmingham …the Queen Mary …the Guardian …the Wall Street Journal …the British Broadcasting Corporation.

The determiner is not spelled with a capital letter, except in the names of books, plays, and paintings.

…The Grapes of Wrath

…A Midsummer Night’s Dream.

Some time expressions are proper nouns, and are dealt with in Chapter 4.

Nouns that are rarely used alone

1.59    There are some nouns that are rarely used alone. They need extra material such as an adjective or a following phrase, because the meaning of the noun would not be clear without it. Some of these nouns have many meanings; others have very little meaning on their own.

For example, you cannot usually refer to someone as the head without saying which organization they are head of. Similarly, you cannot say that there was a note in someone’s voice without describing it as, for example, a triumphant note or a note of triumph.

These nouns are used on their own only if it is obvious from the context what is meant. For example, if you have just mentioned a mountain and you say the top, it is clear that you mean the top of that mountain.

used with modifiers

1.60    A modifier is an adjective or a noun that is added to a noun in order to give more information about it.

…her wide experience of political affairs.

I detected an apologetic note in the agent’s voice.

He did not have British citizenship.

Check the water level.

For more information on modifiers, see Chapter 2.

extra information after the noun

1.61    Extra information after the noun is usually in the form of a phrase beginning with of.

…at the top of the hill.

There he saw for himself the extent of the danger.

Ever since the rise of industrialism, education has concentrated on producing workers. …a high level of interest.

For more information, see paragraphs 2.272 to 2.302.

always used with modifiers

1.62    Some nouns are always used with a modifier. For example, you would not say that someone is an eater because all people eat, but you may want to say that he or she is a meat eater or a messy eater.

Similarly, if you use range, you have to refer to a particular price range or age range. If you use wear to mean clothing, you have to say what sort of clothing, for example sports wear or evening wear.

Tim was a slow eater.

…the other end of the age range.

The company has plans to expand its casual wear.

always used with possessives

1.63    Some nouns are almost always used with a possessive, that is a possessive determiner, ’s, or a prepositional phrase beginning with of, because you have to show who or what the thing you are talking about relates to or belongs to.

The company has grown rapidly since its formation ten years ago.

Advance warning of the approach of enemies was of the greatest importance.

…the portrait of a man in his prime.

metaphorical uses

1.64    Nouns that are being used metaphorically (= when one thing is used to describe another thing) often have a modifier or some other form of extra information, often in the form of a phrase beginning with of, to show what is really being referred to.

…the maze of politics.

He has been prepared to sacrifice this company on the altar of his own political ambitions.

He has worked out a scheme for an economic lifeline by purchasing land.

Lloyd’s of London is the heart of the world’s insurance industry.

…those on the lower rungs of the professional ladder.

list of nouns that are rarely used alone

1.65    Many nouns have some meanings that need a modifier or some other form of extra information, and other meanings that do not.

Here is a list of these nouns:

affair

approach

area

back

band

base

bottom

boundary

branch

case

centre

circumstances

citizenship

class

condition

crisis

culture

depth

development

discovery

eater

edge

edition

element

end

enterprise

epidemic

experience

extent

feeling

field

formation

fringe

ground

growth

head

height

impression

inception

kind

length

level

limit

line

matter

movement

nature

note

period

point

position

power

prime

range

rate

regime

relic

repertoire

rise

role

scale

side

sort

stage

status

structure

stuff

style

system

texture

theory

thought

time

tone

top

transfer

type

version

view

wave

way

wear

wing

world

Adjectives used as nouns: the poor, the impossible

1.66    When you want to talk about groups of people who share the same characteristic or quality, you can use the + adjective. For example, instead of saying poor people, you can say the poor.

…the help that’s given to the blind.

No effort is made to cater for the needs of the elderly.

…the task of rescuing the injured.

…men and women who would join the sad ranks of the unemployed.

Working with the young is stimulating and full of surprises.

…providing care for the sick, the aged, the workless and the poor.

Note that you never add -s to the adjective, even though it always refers to more than one person.

BE CREATIVE

1.67    Although some adjectives are commonly used in this way, in fact it is possible to use almost any adjective in this way.

noun–verb agreement

1.68    When the adjective being used as a noun is the subject of a verb, you use a plural form of the verb.

The rich have benefited much more than the poor.

being more specific

1.69    If you want to talk about a more specific group of people, you put a submodifying adverb (= an adverb that you put in front of an adjective to give more information about it) or another adjective in front of the headword. For more information about submodifying adverbs, see paragraphs 2.140 to 2.168.

In this anecdote, Ray shows his affection for the very old and the very young.

…the highly educated.

…the urban poor.

If you mention two groups, you sometimes omit the.

…a study that compared the diets of rich and poor in several nations.

…to help break down the barriers between young and old.

With a few words such as unemployed and dead, you can say how many people you are referring to by putting a number in front of them.

We estimate there are about three hundred dead.

qualities

1.70    When you want to refer to the quality of something rather than to the thing itself, you can use the appropriate adjective with the.

Don’t you think that you’re wanting the impossible?

He is still exploring the limits of the possible.

…a mix of the traditional and the modern.

colours

1.71    All colour adjectives can also be used as nouns.

…patches of blue.

…brilliant paintings in reds and greens and blues.

Clothing of a particular colour can be referred to simply by using the colour adjective.

The men wore grey.

…the fat lady in black.

USAGE NOTE

1.72    Nationality adjectives that end in -ch, -sh, -se, or -ss can be used in a similar way, unless there is a separate noun for the people. For example, French people are referred to as the French but Polish people are referred to as Poles or the Poles.

For many years the Japanese have dominated the market for Chinese porcelain.

Britons are the biggest consumers of chocolate after the Swiss and the Irish.

Nouns referring to males or females

1.73    English nouns are not masculine, feminine, or neuter in the way that nouns in some other languages are. For example, most names of jobs, such as teacher, doctor, and writer, are used for both men and women.

But some nouns refer only to males and others only to females.

For example, some nouns indicating people’s family relationships, such as father, brother, and son, and some nouns indicating people’s jobs, such as waiter and policeman, are used only to refer to males.

In the same way mother, sister, daughter, waitress, actress, and sportswoman are used only to refer to females.

-ess and -woman

1.74    Words that refer to women often end in -ess, for example actress, waitress, and hostess. Another ending is -woman, as in policewoman and sportswoman.

…his wife Susannah, a former air stewardess.

A policewoman dragged me out of the crowd.

Steph Burton was named sportswoman of the year.

-man and -person

1.75    Words ending in -man are either used to refer only to men or to both men and women. For example, a postman is a man, but a spokesman can be a man or a woman.

Some people now use words ending in -person, such as chairperson and spokesperson, instead of words ending in -man, in order to avoid appearing to refer specifically to a man.

USAGE NOTE

1.76    Most names of animals are used to refer to both male and female animals, for example cat, elephant, horse, monkey, and sheep.

In some cases there are different words that refer specifically to male animals or female animals, for example a male horse is a stallion and a female horse is a mare.

In other cases the general name for the animal is also the specific word for males or females: dog also refers more specifically to male dogs, duck also refers more specifically to female ducks.

Many of these specific words are rarely used, or used mainly by people who have a special interest in animals, such as farmers or vets.

Here is a list of some common specific words for male and female animals:

stallion

mare

~

bull

cow

~

cock

hen

~

dog

bitch

~

drake

duck

~

fox

vixen

~

gander

goose

~

lion

lioness

~

ram

ewe

~

buck

hind

stag

doe

~

tiger

tigress

~

boar

sow

Referring to activities and processes: -ing nouns

1.77    When you want to talk about an action, activity, or process in a general way, you can use a noun that has the same form as the -ing participle of a verb.

These nouns are called different things in different grammars: gerunds, verbal nouns, or -ing forms. In this grammar they are referred to as -ing nouns.

It is sometimes difficult to distinguish an -ing noun from an -ing participle, and it is usually not necessary to do so. However, there are times when it is clearly a noun, for example when it is the subject of a verb, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.

Swimming is a great sport.

The emphasis was on teaching rather than learning.

The closing of so many mills left thousands unemployed.

Some people have never done any public speaking.

The spelling of -ing nouns is explained in the Reference Section. The use of -ing adjectives is explained in paragraphs 2.63 to 2.76.

uncountable nouns

1.78    Because -ing nouns refer to activities in a general way, they are usually uncountable nouns; that is, they have only one form, cannot be used with numbers, and do not usually have a determiner in front of them.

For more information on uncountable nouns, see paragraphs 1.23 to 1.33.

1.79    You often use an -ing noun because it is the only noun form available for certain verbs, such as eat, hear, go, come, and bless. Other verbs have related nouns that are not -ing nouns: for example see and sight, arrive and arrival, depart and departure.

Eating is an important part of a cruise holiday.

…loss of hearing in one ear.

Only 6 per cent of children receive any further training when they leave school.

used with adjectives

1.80    If you want to describe the action expressed by the noun, you use one or more adjectives or nouns in front of it.

He served a jail sentence for reckless driving.

The police need better training in dealing with the mentally ill.

He called for a national campaign against under-age drinking.

1.81    A few -ing nouns, mostly words for sporting or leisure activities, are much more common than their related verbs. In some cases there is no verb, although it is always possible to invent one. For example, you are more likely to say We went caravanning round France than We caravanned round France.

Here is a list of the commonest of these nouns:

angling

boating

bowling

canoeing

caravanning

electioneering

hang-gliding

mountaineering

paragliding

shoplifting

shopping

sightseeing

skateboarding

snorkelling

snowboarding

surfing

weightlifting

window-shopping

windsurfing

yachting

Although these words are not always associated with a verb, most of them can be used as -ing participles.

I spent the afternoon window-shopping with Grandma.

countable nouns

1.82    Some -ing nouns that are related to verbs are countable nouns. They generally refer to the result of an action or process, or to an individual instance of it. Sometimes their meaning is not closely related to that of the verb.

Here is a list of the commonest of these nouns:

beginning

being

building

drawing

feeling

finding

hearing

meaning

meeting

offering

painting

saying

setting

showing

sitting

suffering

turning

warning

For more information on countable nouns, see paragraphs 1.15 to 1.22.

Compound nouns: car park, mother-in-law, breakdown

1.83    A single noun is often not enough to refer clearly to a person or thing. When this is the case, a compound noun can be used. A compound noun is a fixed expression that is made from more than one word, and that behaves as a noun.

Some people write out a new address book every January.

How would one actually choose a small personal computer?

Where did you hide the can opener?

…a private swimming pool.

Once it is clear what you are referring to, it is sometimes possible to use just the second word of a two-word compound noun. For example, after mentioning a swimming pool, you can just refer to the pool.

Most compound nouns consist of two words, but some consist of three or more words.

…a vase of lily of the valley.

two words, one word or a hyphen?

1.84    Some compound nouns are written with hyphens instead of spaces between the words.

I’m looking forward to a lie-in tomorrow.

He’s very good at problem-solving.

Judy’s brother-in-law lived with his family.

Some compound nouns, especially very frequent ones, are written as one word.

…patterned wallpaper.

They copied questions from the blackboard.

In some cases, you can choose whether to write a compound noun with or without a hyphen, or with or without a space. For example, both air-conditioner and air conditioner are possible, and both postbox and post box are possible.

A few compound nouns that consist of more than two words are written partly with hyphens and partly with spaces, for example back-seat driver and bring-and-buy sale.

…children from one-parent families.

…a Parent-Teacher Association.

lists of compound nouns

1.85    Compound nouns may be countable, uncountable, singular, or plural.

Here is a list of some common countable compound nouns:

address book

air conditioner

air raid

alarm clock

assembly line

baby-sitter

back-seat driver

bank account

bird of prey

book token

blood donor

bride-to-be

bring-and-buy sale

brother-in-law

burglar alarm

bus stop

can opener

car park

compact disc

contact lens

credit card

dining room

drawing pin

driving licence

estate agent

fairytale

father-in-law

film star

fire engine

fork-lift truck

frying pan

guided missile

health centre

heart attack

high school

human being

letter box

lily of the valley

mother-in-law

musical instrument

nervous breakdown

news bulletin

old hand

one-parent family

package holiday

Parent-Teacher Association

parking meter

pen-friend

personal computer

polar bear

police station

post office

rolling pin

sister-in-law

sleeping bag

swimming pool

T-shirt

tea bag

telephone number

traveller’s cheque

washing machine

X-ray

youth hostel

zebra crossing

1.86    Here is a list of some common uncountable compound nouns:

air conditioning

air-traffic control

barbed wire

birth control

blood pressure

bubble bath

capital punishment

central heating

chewing gum

common sense

cotton wool

data processing

do-it-yourself

dry-cleaning

family planning

fancy dress

fast food

first aid

food poisoning

further education

general knowledge

hay fever

heart failure

higher education

hire purchase

income tax

junk food

law and order

lost property

mail order

mineral water

nail varnish

natural history

old age

pocket money

remote control

science fiction

show business

show jumping

sign language

social security

social work

soda water

stainless steel

table tennis

talcum powder

toilet paper

tracing paper

unemployment benefit

value added tax

washing powder

washing-up liquid

water-skiing

writing paper

1.87    Here is a list of some common singular compound nouns:

age of consent

arms race

brain drain

continental divide

cost of living

death penalty

diplomatic corps

dress circle

fire brigade

general public

generation gap

greenhouse effect

hard core

human race

labour force

labour market

long jump

mother tongue

open air

private sector

public sector

rank and file

solar system

sound barrier

space age

welfare state

women’s movement

1.88    Here is a list of some common plural compound nouns:

armed forces

baked beans

civil rights

current affairs

French fries

grass roots

high heels

human rights

industrial relations

inverted commas

licensing laws

luxury goods

modern languages

natural resources

race relations

road works

social services

social studies

swimming trunks

vocal cords

winter sports

yellow pages

composition of compound nouns

1.89    Most compound nouns consist of two nouns, or an adjective and a noun.

I listened with anticipation to the radio news bulletin.

…a big dining room.

Old age is a time for reflection and slowing down.

However, some compound nouns are related to phrasal verbs. These are sometimes written with a hyphen, and sometimes as one word. They are rarely written as separate words.

The President was directly involved in the Watergate cover-up.

I think there’s been a mix-up.

…a breakdown of diplomatic relations.

The singer is making a comeback.

Here is a list of frequent nouns based on phrasal verbs. They are shown in this list in the form in which they are most frequently written, either with a hyphen or as one word.

backup

bailout

blackout

breakaway

breakdown

break-in

breakout

break-up

build-up

buyout

check-in

checkout

check-up

comeback

countdown

cover-up

crackdown

cutbacks

drawback

feedback

follow-up

giveaway

handout

kick-off

lead-up

lookout

make-up

meltdown

mix-up

passer-by

run-in

runner-up

run-off

run-up

sell-out

setback

set-up

show-off

slowdown

takeaway

take-off

turnover

warm-up

For more information about phrasal verbs, see paragraphs 3.83 to 3.116.

USAGE NOTE

1.90    In some cases, the meaning of a compound noun is not obvious from the words it consists of.

For example, someone’s mother tongue is not the tongue of their mother but the language they learn as a child, and an old hand is not a hand that is old but a person who is experienced at doing a particular job.

     In other cases, the compound noun consists of words that do not occur on their own, for example hanky-panky, hodge-podge, and argy-bargy. These nouns are usually used in informal conversation rather than formal writing.

Most of what he said was a load of hocus-pocus.

She is usually involved in some sort of jiggery-pokery.

plural forms

1.91    The plural forms of compound nouns vary according to the type of words that they consist of. If the final word of a compound noun is a countable noun, the plural form of the countable noun is used when the compound noun is plural.

Air raids were taking place every night.

…health centres, banks, post offices, and police stations.

Loud voices could be heard through letter boxes.

…the refusal of dockers to use fork-lift trucks.

For full information about the plural forms of countable nouns, see the Reference Section.

Compound nouns that are directly related to phrasal verbs usually have a plural form ending in -s.

Nobody seems disturbed about cover-ups when they are essential to the conduct of a war.

Naturally, I think people who drive smarter, faster cars than mine are show-offs.

A few compound nouns are less directly related to phrasal verbs, and consist of a countable noun and an adverb. In these cases, the plural form of the countable noun is used before the adverb when the compound noun is plural.

For example, the plural of runner-up is runners-up, and the plural of summing-up is summings-up.

Passers-by helped the victim, who was unconscious.

Compound nouns that consist of two nouns linked by the prepositions of or in, or a noun followed by to-be, have a plural form in which the first noun in the compound is plural.

I like birds of prey and hawks particularly.

She was treated with contempt by her sisters-in-law.

Most mothers-to-be in their forties opt for this test.

Some compound nouns have been borrowed from other languages, mainly French and Latin, and therefore do not have normal English plural forms.

Agents provocateurs were sent to cause trouble.

The nouveaux riches of younger states are building palatial mansions for themselves.

1.92    Compound nouns are fixed expressions. However, nouns can always be used in front of other nouns in order to refer to something in a more specific way. For the use of nouns as modifiers, see paragraphs 2.169 to 2.174.

Talking about people and things without naming them: pronouns

1.93    When you use language, both in speech and writing, you constantly refer to things you have already mentioned or are about to mention.

You can do this by repeating the noun phrase, but unless there is a special reason to do so, you are more likely to use a pronoun instead.

Pronouns make statements less repetitive.

John took the book and opened it.

Deborah recognized the knife as hers.

Shilton was pleased with himself. This is a very busy place.

However, if you have mentioned two or more different things, you usually have to repeat the noun phrase to make it clear which thing you are now talking about.

Leaflets and scraps of papers were scattered all over the floor. I started to pick up the leaflets.

I could see a lorry and a car. The lorry stopped.

For other ways of talking about things that have already been mentioned, see paragraphs 10.2 to 10.39.

types of pronoun

1.94    There are several different types of pronoun:

personal pronouns. See paragraphs 1.95 to 1.106.

possessive pronouns. See paragraphs 1.107 to 1.110.

reflexive pronouns. See paragraphs 1.111 to 1.118.

generic pronouns. See paragraphs 1.119 to 1.123.

demonstrative pronouns. See paragraphs 1.124 to 1.127.

indefinite pronouns. See paragraphs 1.128 to 1.141.

reciprocal pronouns. See paragraphs 1.142 to 1.145.

relative