Global Voices

‘Indigenous languages are asleep, not extinct,’ says Kokama linguistics researcher

The UN has instituted the period between 2022 and 2032 as International Decade for Indigenous Languages. In an interview for GV's partner Amazônia Real, professor and researcher Altaci Rubim, from the Kokama people, talks about the importance of it.

Originally published on Global Voices

The UN has instituted the period between 2022 and 2032 as Indigenous Languages International Decade. In an interview with Amazonia Real, professor and researcher Altaci Rubim speaks about the importance of this movement | Photo: Marizilda Cruppe/Amazônia Real

This piece was written by Elaíze Farias and originally published at Amazônia Real's website, on April 19, 2023. It is republished here, with edits, under a partnership agreement with Global Voices.

The brutality against Indigenous people in Brazil has promoted not only the loss of their territories but also extinguished many original languages. There were over 1,000 native languages by the time the European invaders landed in the country in 1500. Today there are just more than 200, according to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE). With the review following data from the 2022 Census, this number could increase.

In some cases, there are barely any speakers, with only one or two people keeping the language alive. But there are many ways to recover, revitalize and rescue an original people's language, even those considered to be extinct. Through rituals and contacts with ancestors, the so called spirit-languages can be “resurrected.”

With this idea in mind, professor and researcher Altaci Rubim took an important part in the Indigenous Languages International Decade, a global mobilization that started in 2022 and will go on until 2032, instituted by the United Nations (UN). Altaci is the Latin America and Caribbean representative at Unesco's working group for this campaign.

According to Unesco, there are over 7,000 spoken languages on the planet. Among them, over 6,000 are Indigenous ones, but 3,000 are at risk of disappearing.

Among the reasons that could lead a language to extinction are factors such as speakers dying, colonizers or missionaries forbidding to speak it, territorial destruction, racism, and discrimination. In 2022, the death of a Tanaru Indigenous man, known as “the Indigenous in a hole,” was the end of a linguistic treasure that lived only with him.

Altaci is from the Kokama people in the Amazonas state. She is a researcher, activist and has just taken up a position in the Department of Indigenous Languages and Memory in the recently created Indigenous People's Ministry. Her name in their language is Tataiya Kokama.

In Manaus, Amazonas’ capital, where she lived through a significant part of her working life, Altaci developed the revitalization of her people's language in communities within urban contexts. She describes herself as a linguist “by profession and by heart,” who dialogues with anthropology and other sciences.

In an interview with Amazônia Real, she speaks of the efforts to preserve languages at risk.

Amazônia Real: What is the Indigenous Languages International Decade?

Altaci Rubim: Ela surge em 2019, na Bolívia, durante uma luta em torno do fortalecimento das línguas indígenas. Nesse movimento, foi criado o Ano Internacional das Línguas Indígenas. A Unesco fez então uma chamada para as instituições dialogarem com os povos indígenas, para as organizações prepararem um plano de ação com os povos de sete regiões do planeta.

It came up in 2019, in Bolivia, during a fight to strengthen Indigenous languages. In this movement, the International Year of Indigenous Languages was created. Unesco then opened a call to institutions to dialogue with Indigenous people, and organizations to prepare an action plan with the people in the seven regions of the planet.

Amazônia Real: Why was it necessary to create a decade for the Indigenous languages?

AR: O primeiro ponto é porque o planeta corre risco de extinção. A Unesco sabe que as línguas indígenas guardam saberes, que preservam a floresta, combatem os problemas ocasionados pelas queimadas, pela poluição dos rios. As questões climáticas são minimizadas a partir dos saberes tradicionais que estão contidos nas línguas indígenas. Evidentemente há muitas ações realizadas para evitar o desaparecimento do planeta, mas línguas indígenas representam uma das possibilidades para combater. Para isso, os líderes, os governantes, estão sendo chamados para criarem políticas de valorização, de manutenção, de retomada, do fortalecimento das línguas indígenas.

First of all, because the planet is risking extinction. Unesco knows that Indigenous languages also keep the knowledge of those who preserve the forests, fighting problems brought by fires, by the pollution in the rivers. The climate issues are minimized from the traditional knowledges that are contained in Indigenous languages. Evidently there are many actions to avoid the disappearance of the planet, but Indigenous languages represent one of the possibilities to fight this. So, leaders, rulers are being called to create politics of appreciation, maintenance, retaking and strengthening of the Indigenous languages.

Amazônia Real: How did Indigenous languages disappear and why do they need to be brought back? 

AR: Na América Latina e no Caribe há em torno de 58,2 milhões de indígenas que falam aproximadamente 550 línguas originárias. No Brasil, no início da colonização eram mais de mil línguas. Foi um conjunto de ação: a igreja, a própria política de estado de dominação. Tudo se resume em retirar a terra dos povos indígenas. Todas essas políticas foram feitas para acabar com a vida dos povos originários. Mas os colonizadores sabiam que um dia íamos acordar, saber quem somos, o valor das nossas línguas. Por isso que precisavam acabar com nossa memória e resistência.

A primeira ferramenta usada foi pela língua, através do silenciamento. Teve políticas de extermínio, doenças, escravidão, massacres. Outra coisa foi diminuir a demarcação até não ter mais ninguém.

In Latin America and the Caribbean, there are around 58.2 million Indigenous people, speaking around 550 original languages. In Brazil, at the beginning of the colonization process there were over 1,000 languages. It was a set of actions: the church, the state's own dominance politics. Everything adds up to removing Indigenous people from their lands. All those policies were conducted to end the lives of original people. But the colonizers knew that one day we would wake up, know who we are, the value of our languages. That is why they needed to end our memory and resistance.

The first tool used was the language, through silencing. There were politics of extermination, diseases, slavery, massacres. Another thing was to diminish the land demarcation until there was no one left.

Amazônia Real: What will be done during this decade? What actions are being planned? 

AR: Nós fomos chamados junto com outros povos para elaborar um plano de ação mundial para a década. A partir desse plano, começamos a nos organizar. Eu me candidatei pela Associação dos Indígenas Kokama Residentes em Manaus. Estamos criando uma autonomia dentro do Brasil para que a gente possa andar com nossas próprias pernas. Que esse movimento vá para além da década.

We were called with other people to elaborate a plan of world action to the decade. From that plan on, we will start to organize. I applied through the Kokama Indigenous Association from Manaus. We are building self-sufficiency in Brazil, so we can walk with our own legs. To make this movement continue beyond the decade.

Amazônia Real: What will be done to enhance languages at risk? 

AR: Mexer com a língua é conflituoso. Mas se não nos aliarmos nesse momento, podemos não ter oportunidade de fortalecer as línguas que estão “fracas”. Tem povo querendo retomar, mas falta política pública para isso. Antes, pesquisadores que tinham seus nichos de pesquisa para determinada língua não abriam para ninguém, nem mesmo para o próprio povo [pesquisado]. No primeiro momento foi isso que aconteceu.

Working with languages is conflicting. But if we do not ally in this moment, we may not have the opportunity to strengthen languages that are “weak.” There are some people who want to retake it, but lack public policies to do so. Before, researchers who had their niches of research to a determined language did not open space to anyone else, not even to the own people [those who were being topic of research].

Amazônia Real: What did you find extraordinary so far in the initial mapping of Indigenous languages in Brazil? 

AR: Chamou a atenção a língua de sinais indígenas, algo que sempre existiu entre os povos indígenas, como eles se comunicam. Hoje a gente tem a língua de sinais brasileira (Libras) desrespeitando o que os próprios povos têm. Não significa que não se deva aprender [a língua de sinais não-indígena], mas que não sejam desvalorizados os sinais que os indígenas utilizam nas aldeias. Alguns pesquisadores também trabalham com a temática do português indígena. É uma pauta importante para nós, mas não encontrávamos uma forma dos indígenas se manifestarem sobre isso, que é a exigência de se falar apenas o português oficial em detrimento do português com influência da língua indígena, das memórias.

The Indigenous sign language called my attention, something that has always existed among Indigenous people, how they communicate. Nowadays we have the Brazilian Sign Language (Libras) even disrespecting what the own people have. It doesn't mean you shouldn't learn it [the non-Indigenous sign language], but that the signs used by the Indigenous people in their communities shouldn't be undermined. Some researchers even work with the subject of Indigenous Portuguese. It's an important subject for us, but we didn't find a way of having Indigenous people speaking out about it, which is the demand of speaking only the official Portuguese language to the detriment of the Portuguese with Indigenous influence, in memory.

Amazônia Real: What is Indigenous Portuguese? 

AR: Um exemplo é o português falado pelos Tikuna (povo da região do Alto Solimões), mas com influência deles, o português falado pelos Kokama. São 370 formas de falar o português, porque cada povo vai falar conforme a sua língua. Por que estamos trazendo essa discussão? Porque todas as políticas de formação de professores precisam levar em consideração os que são falantes de língua indígena e os que falam português como segunda língua. É outra forma de se pensar a formação.

An example is the Portuguese spoken by the Tikuna people (people from the region of the High Solimões river), but with their influence, the Portuguese spoken by the Kokama. There are 370 ways of speaking Portuguese, because every people will do it according to their language. Why are we bringing up this discussion? Because all policies of teacher training need to take into consideration those who speak an Indigenous language and those who have Portuguese as a second language. This is another way of thinking about training.

Amazônia Real: You've commented about a concept called “water truce.” What is it and how does it relate to Indigenous Languages? 

AR: Sabemos que antes dessas discussões, antes de terem indígenas formados, as instituições que detinham o controle dos indígenas eram os que faziam pesquisas. Muitos devolviam o estudo para os povos, outros não. Aquilo que foi gravado é um tesouro para nós. Devagar estamos socializando. Colocando essa questão em pauta para que as pesquisas voltem para outros povos. Queremos a nossa língua porque é nossa vida. O conhecimento e o saber são o espírito do povo. Não estamos criminalizando [os pesquisadores], pois era um tipo de pensamento da época. Mas hoje estamos dialogando e colocando na “trégua da água”.

Significa que precisamos parar de nos digladiar, quebrar o muro e dizer que todos precisamos tomar água, todos nós precisamos das línguas indígenas. É uma metáfora referente ao tempo que vivemos hoje.

We know that before these discussions, before we had graduated Indigenous people, institutions who had control over Indigenous people were the ones doing research. Many will give it back to their people, other wouldn't. What has been recorded is a treasure for us. Slowly we can start to socialize it. Putting these questions is discussion, so the researches can go to other people as well. We want our language because it's our life. Knowledge is the spirit of the people. We are not criminalizing [the researchers], because it was the thought of that time. But today we are talking and placing the “water truce”.

It means we need to stop fighting among ourselves, break the wall and say that we all need to drink some water, we all need the Indigenous languages. It's a metaphor for the current times.

Amazônia Real: How does one analyze Indigenous languages today? 

AR: As línguas indígenas sempre foram classificadas por linguistas não-indígenas. Eles pegaram a organização europeia, eurocêntrica, que classifica as línguas neolatinas, por exemplo, para classificar línguas indígenas também. Que é outra perspectiva. Hoje, nós povos indígenas à frente dessa discussão, temos outra forma de ver isso. Segundo a classificação de Aryon Rodrigues [linguista brasileiro, morto em 2014], são 180 línguas hoje no Brasil. Eram 1.100 no início da chegada do colonizador.

The Indigenous languages were always categorized by non-Indigenous linguists. They got the Eurocentric European organization, which categorizes Neo-latin languages, for example, to categorize Indigenous ones too. Which is another perspective. Today, we the Indigenous people heading this discussion, have another way of seeing it. According to the classification of Aryon Rodrigues [a Brazilian linguist, who died in 2014], there are 180 languages nowadays in Brazil. It used to be 1,100 back at the colonizer arrival.

Amazônia Real: What is the difference between the conception of languages in the light of classical thinkers, such as Saussure [Swiss linguist], and Indigenous connaisseurs and researchers?

AR: Se for pra Saussure, vamos ter a língua como sistema. Na concepção de Noam Chomsky, a concepção de língua é dada na gramática universal. É outra forma de pensar. Na nossa concepção de língua, também temos a língua-espírito. Os nossos espíritos só falam na língua de cada povo. Sabendo que existe a língua-espírito, então nessa concepção é que ela não morre, não pode ser considerada extinta.

If you go with Saussure, we'll have language as a system. In Noam Chomsky's conception, the conception of language is given in the universal grammar. It's another way of thinking. In our conception of language, we also have the spirit-language. Our spirits only speak in each people's own language. Knowing that there is a spirit-language, then this conception is that it doesn't die, it can't be considered extinct.

Amazônia Real: Where is the spirit-language present?

AR: Elas são retomadas em sonhos, pelo espírito. Muitos povos têm na memória ou em outro lugar guardado, como em museu. As que não tem, são acordadas nesses rituais.

They are retaken in dreams, by the spirit. Many people have it in memory or kept in another place, like a museum. Those who don't have it, are woken up in these rituals.

Amazônia Real: Which are the other categories of languages that go by this process of rescue? 

AR: Temos línguas em revitalização, línguas adormecidas e línguas em manutenção. As línguas em revitalização não são faladas no cotidiano, mas tem anciões falantes. Há toda uma base para ser retomada. Revitalização é dar força à dinâmica da existência, que ocorre a partir dos cantos, dos rituais. Uma língua em revitalização é a Patxohã, dos Pataxó, na Bahia. Eles decidiram coletivamente que iriam falar a língua. Só que o léxico da língua que eles tinham era pouco. Havia dois lembradores. Então, eles foram para os rituais. A partir dos sonhos e dos rituais, eles criaram novos léxicos. A língua foi atualizada. Hoje a língua está em pleno processo de revitalização. As línguas em manutenção são, por exemplo, como a dos Tikuna. Tem comunidades que não estão mais falando, por isso, é preciso política de manutenção. Há casos de comunidades onde ela está enfraquecida.

We have languages being revitalized, languages asleep and languages in maintenance. Languages in revitalization are not spoken in daily life, but it has elder speakers. There is a whole base to be retaken. Revitalization is to give strength to the dynamics of existence, which happens from singing, from rituals. One of the languages being revitalized is the Patxohã, from the Pataxó people, in the state of Bahia. They collectively decided to speak the language. But the lexicon they had was short. There were only two people who remembered. So, they moved to rituals. From their dreams and rituals, they created new lexicons. The language was updated. Today the language is a full process of revitalization. Languages in maintenance, for example, include the Tikuna's. There are communities that don't speak anymore, therefore, it needs a policy for maintenance. There are cases of communities where is weakening.

Amazônia Real: How do you rescue a language that, in a standard understanding, was considered extinct? 

AR: Uma das mais importantes são as línguas adormecidas, elas não foram extintas. Por exemplo, a língua dos Manaós. Elas podem ser acordadas em rituais. A partir do momento que alguém reivindicar a identidade, pode querer sua língua de volta. Pode entrar em contato com os espíritos. Essa é a nossa perspectiva de discussão da década.

Some of the most important ones are the languages that are asleep, but they were not extinct. For example, the Manaós’ language. It can be awakened in rituals. From the moment that someone claims the identity, they can want their language back. It can get in touch with the spirits. This is our perspective of debate for the decade.

Amazônia Real: How can we understand the spirit-languages without turning it into an exotic piece under the lights of non-Indigenous people? 

AR: Quando se fala de espírito supõe-se que está se falando de religiosidade. Mas o que estamos falando é na concepção dos povos originários. O espírito vai ter um significado, mas pela espiritualidade de cada povo.

When one speaks about spirit it's assumed that they are talking about religiosity. But we are talking about it in the conception of the original people. The spirit has a meaning, but according to the spirituality of each people.

Amazônia Real: In the city of Manaus, the population of the Kokama people is strong and numerous. How is the work with the Kokama group that lives in the capital of Amazonas state? 

AR: Tenho essa luta desde 2000. Mas nessa caminhada toda, a gente teve que se desconstruir no processo. Tirar o espírito colonizador que a gente aprendeu. As pessoas não acreditavam que eu falava minha língua. Não me ouviam falar. Então, é preciso desmistificar isso. Entender os processos linguísticos foi importante para dizer: “Eu falo Kokama e ensino Kokama”. Enquanto eu não entendi isso, enquanto não passei por uma formação que possibilitou isso, continuava como muitos outros, sem entender e falar. Com o grupo Kokama fazíamos oficinas de formação.

I have kept this fight since 2000. But throughout this path, we had to deconstruct ourselves along the process. To take out the colonizer spirit that we learned. People couldn't believe that I spoke my language. They didn't hear me speaking. So, it's necessary to demystify it. To understand that linguistic processes are important to say: “I speak Kokama, I teach Kokama.” While I didn't understand that, while I didn't go through a training that allowed that, I continued as many others, without being able to understand and to speak it. With the Kokama group we held training workshops.

Amazônia Real: How is the language of your people, the Kokama? 

AR: Nós, Kokama, fizemos uma assembleia e decidimos ficar com a língua oficial falada no Peru [a língua kukama foi oficializada no país em 2015]. Entre nosso grupo Kokama, do qual faço parte, a gente mantém esse acordo. É essa língua comum que falamos.

We, the Kokama, held an assembly and decided to keep the official language spoken in Peru [the kukama language turned official in the country in 2015]. Among our Kokama group, the one which I belong to, we keep this deal. It's this common language that we speak.

Originally published in Global Voices.

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