Six Systems of Vedic Philosophy Series

Enlightenment in the West was predicated on the idea that the questions of the soul and God cannot be answered through reason, and therefore, we must stop asking such questions. Vedānta arrived at a different conclusion 500 years ago in the Acintyabhedābheda philosophy of Sri Chaitanya: the questions of the soul and God cannot be answered through reason, and therefore, we must answer them through devotion. The rejection of the ultimate questions, or the rejection of their rational understanding, are both unsatisfactory, and this commentary on Vedānta Sutra arises out of that dissatisfaction. It traces the problem to the nature of language: words have multiple meanings, but they cannot be applied simultaneously. Each type of meaning is instead revealed in a different context. The problem of irrationality is the contradiction between language and logic: linguistic truth is contextual, and logical truth is universal. To solve this problem, we need a modal conception of reality in which everything exists as a combination of three modes (called by various names in Vedic philosophy), but one of these modes is dominant at one time, place, or circumstance, while the others are subordinated. Logic is the change in mode priorities, and contradictory claims can be true, although not simultaneously. Thus, God, matter, and soul, are three modes, called puruṣa, prakriti, and jīvā, and the world is created by their combination, but they cannot be known simultaneously. The soul is known when matter is subordinated, and God is known when the soul is subordinated. Knowledge is complete if three modes are used, consistent if they are not used simultaneously, and rational if logic is the process of mode change. This view of reality reconciles all previous Vedānta positions as different modes of description; hence Advaita, Viśiṣṭādvaita, Dvaita, and Bhedābheda are true, but not simultaneously. Simultaneity leads to achintya or inconceivability, but non-simultaneity leads to chintya or conceivability. Note: This book is also available as a standalone single-volume book called "Conceiving the Inconceivable"

Enlightenment in the West was predicated on the idea that the questions of the soul and God cannot be answered through reason, and therefore, we must stop asking such questions. Vedānta arrived at a different conclusion 500 years ago in the Acintyabhedābheda philosophy of Sri Chaitanya: the questions of the soul and God cannot be answered through reason, and therefore, we must answer them through devotion. The rejection of the ultimate questions, or the rejection of their rational understanding, are both unsatisfactory, and this commentary on Vedānta Sutra arises out of that dissatisfaction. It traces the problem to the nature of language: words have multiple meanings, but they cannot be applied simultaneously. Each type of meaning is instead revealed in a different context. The problem of irrationality is the contradiction between language and logic: linguistic truth is contextual, and logical truth is universal. To solve this problem, we need a modal conception of reality in which everything exists as a combination of three modes (called by various names in Vedic philosophy), but one of these modes is dominant at one time, place, or circumstance, while the others are subordinated. Logic is the change in mode priorities, and contradictory claims can be true, although not simultaneously. Thus, God, matter, and soul, are three modes, called puruṣa, prakriti, and jīvā, and the world is created by their combination, but they cannot be known simultaneously. The soul is known when matter is subordinated, and God is known when the soul is subordinated. Knowledge is complete if three modes are used, consistent if they are not used simultaneously, and rational if logic is the process of mode change. This view of reality reconciles all previous Vedānta positions as different modes of description; hence Advaita, Viśiṣṭādvaita, Dvaita, and Bhedābheda are true, but not simultaneously. Simultaneity leads to achintya or inconceivability, but non-simultaneity leads to chintya or conceivability. Note: This book is also available as a standalone single-volume book called "Conceiving the Inconceivable"

Sāñkhya is one of the Six Systems of Vedic philosophy, and Sāñkhya Sūtra is the oldest and most authoritative text on this philosophy. This book translates and comments on this ancient text. Sāñkhya describes a process of material manifestation in which the world springs from a primordial idea called pradhāna which means "I am the master". From this idea, many desires for enjoyment called prakṛti are created. From these notions of enjoyment, qualities of greatness called mahattattva are produced. And from the qualities of greatness, many types of egos—entitlement and pride—are created. From these entitlements, beliefs about the world that will prove that the self is the enjoyer are produced. From these beliefs object-concepts, from the object-concepts sense perceptions, and from the sense perceptions the objects that embody these sense perceptions, are produced. This inverted process that begins in the idea of mastery illustrates how the soul enters the world due to its desire for mastery. As this idea is false, the soul's efforts to realize mastery are constantly wrecked by nature. Since the foundation of material existence is a false idea, but the wrecking is real, hence, nature is said to be both real and false. Nature is however stated to not be evil, although suffering is real, because nature has a purpose to make the soul realize that the Supreme Lord is the true master. If the soul accepts the Lord as the true master and renounces its desire for mastery, then it is liberated.

Yoga is one of the Six Systems of Vedic philosophy, and Yoga Sūtra is the oldest and most authoritative text on this philosophy. This book translates and comments on this ancient text.   The text begins by describing how conscious experience begins in the Chitta, which is the repository of our past experiences, accumulated over many lifetimes. From this historical record of past experiences, thoughts and desires are produced automatically, which the soul falsely considers as its creations, and thus becomes a slave to its past. The purpose of Yoga is to destroy this historical record and liberate the soul from the bondage of its past. To achieve this goal, the Yoga Sūtra presents an eight-step process comprising Yama, Niyama, Āsana, Prāñayāma, Pratyāhāra, Dhārana, Dhyāna, and Samādhī.   The steps of meditation called Dhārana and Dhyāna are stated to be the surrender to the form of the Lord called Paramātma in the heart. This surrender—called īśvara prānidhāna—is the perfection of Yoga. All previous steps are presented as the means to help the practitioner of Yoga meditate unflinchingly.   The text presents eight-fold mystical perfections called Siddhis, gained by a Yogi who has mastered the control of Prāña. This book discusses the details of these mystical perfections and how they rest upon an alternative understanding of matter. They enable a Yogi to become light or heavy, small or big, walk on fire, water, or air, travel to distant places in a moment, or change his or her body instantly.

Nyāya is one of the Six Systems of Vedic philosophy, and Nyāya Sūtra is the oldest and most authoritative text on this philosophy. This book translates and comments on this ancient text.   Nyāya presents an alternative system of logic and reasoning in which reality exists as a potential, and it manifests an answer based on a question. This question is called "absence" and the answer is called "presence". We are all combinations of some presence and absence—i.e., some answers and questions. Our interactions with the world are thus described just like conversations between two people.   Happiness is created when the answers match the questions and the questions match the answers. Unhappiness is produced when the questions and answers are mismatched. This match or mismatch is based on the meanings in the question and answer; hence all reality must be studied as a text. It is just like sentences comprised of words and letters, not physical matter, force, or deterministic laws.   The sequence of questions and answers is not deterministic because each question can be answered in different ways, and each answer can lead to different questions. Therefore, this scheme of logic is not contrary to free will. Free will in this description of logic is the ability to ask a different question based on a given answer, or the ability to provide a different answer to a given question. By exercising this choice of changing our questions and answers, the soul can alter its trajectory in the world.

Vaiśeṣika is one of the Six Systems of Vedic philosophy, and Vaiśeṣika Sūtra is the oldest and most authoritative text on this philosophy. This book translates and comments on this ancient text.   Vaiśeṣika describes all things in the world as Padārtha—pada denotes a symbol and artha denotes its meaning. These symbols of meaning are created by the combination of Samānya and Vaiśesa or universals and individuals. These Padārtha are connected to each other through a relationship of inherence called Samvāya, which we can call the whole-part relationship. Thus, one symbol represents the whole, and the other symbols connected to it through inherence constitute its parts. This whole-part relation between symbols of meaning is organized from whole to parts like an inverted tree in which the root is the whole, the branches are the parts of the root, the leaves are parts of the branches, etc.   The universals are of three types—guna (qualities), kriya (activities), and dravya (object). The activities and qualities inhere in the object, and they are manifest through interactions between symbols.   We can measure the effects of interactions via physical instruments and convert the semantic reality to physical reality, but we can never explain these effects based on the quantities. This description of atomism in Vaiśeṣika helps us understand why modern scientific atomism is incomplete—it tries to explain effects measured using physical instruments in terms of physical objects and their properties, when the objects, their properties, and their effects must all be described as concepts.