Battles of the Ages: World War I 1914

By Marcus Caldwell

Uncover the harrowing and pivotal battles that marked the commencement of the Great War, a conflict that would reshape the world. In this detailed chronicle, the reader is transported to the tumultuous year of 1914, where empires clashed and the modern age of warfare was born. From the fervent patriotism of August to the brutal onset of trench w

• Language: English
• Publisher: Battles of the Ages
• Release date: Dec 9, 2023
• ISBN: 9798869053923

Book preview

Marcus Caldwell

Battles of the Ages

World War I 1914

Copyright © 2023 by Marcus Caldwell

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise without written permission from the publisher. It is illegal to copy this book, post it to a website, or distribute it by any other means without permission.

First edition

Contents

Introduction

Battle of Liège

Battle of the Frontiers

Siege of Maubeuge

First Battle of the Marne

First Battle of the Aisne

Siege of Antwerp

Battles of Albert and Arras

First Battle of Ypres

Battle of Tannenberg

First Battle of the Masurian Lakes

Battles of the Vistula River and Łódź

Battle of Sarikamish

Serbian Campaign

African Theatre

Naval Engagements

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

As the summer of 1914 dawned, the world teetered on the edge of a monumental shift. The murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary on June 28th of that year initiated a cascade of events, spiraling into what would become one of the most catastrophic wars in history: World War I.

At this juncture, the great powers of Europe - Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia - found themselves entangled in a dense network of alliances and rivalries. These intricate and sensitive relationships had been sculpted over years through diplomatic chess games, colonial power struggles, and a relentless arms race. Europe had become a ticking time bomb, awaiting a trigger to ignite.

That trigger came with the assassination in Sarajevo. Rapidly, the tangled web of alliances escalated a regional crisis into a full-blown global conflict. Germany, in support of Austria-Hungary, declared war on Russia and France. Britain, bound by its alliance with France and wary of Germany’s maritime ambitions, joined the fray. Thus, a divided and heavily armed Europe descended into warfare.

The German military strategy, known as the Schlieffen Plan, was designed for a swift victory over France, followed by a pivot eastward to confront Russia. The Battles of the Frontiers, which included numerous skirmishes along the borders of Germany, France, and Belgium in August 1914, showcased the lethal power of modern armaments and the ineffectiveness of antiquated military tactics. A crucial event occurred in early September with the Battle of the Marne, which abruptly stopped the German onslaught, sparing Paris and initiating a protracted and punishing war of attrition.

In stark contrast to the Western Front, the Eastern Front was characterized by extensive troop movements across vast areas. Here, the conflicts mainly involved Germany and Austria-Hungary battling Russia. These engagements underscored the distinct military strengths and strategies of the Eastern and Western forces and the particular challenges posed by the terrain of Eastern Europe.

The narratives of the soldiers, commanders, and civilians caught in these tumultuous events offer a moving testament to the personal costs of the war. They reveal a journey from initial fervor to early disenchantment, and ultimately, a persistent resilience amidst extraordinary adversity, providing a vivid portrait of life amid the turmoil of these battles.

The warfare of 1914 was profoundly influenced by technological advancements such as machine guns, aircraft, and artillery. These innovations revolutionized the nature of combat, making the battles of that year uniquely devastating in their violence, scale, and transformative impact.

This account delves deeply and analytically into the battles that defined the first year of World War I, yet remains profoundly human in its approach. The goal is not merely to chronicle the events, but to deeply comprehend them – to unravel the complexities, the personal experiences, and the far-reaching implications of these initial conflicts.

Battle of Liège

Belgium’s military strategy in the early 20th century was a fascinating blend of caution, reliance on neighboring powers, and last-minute adjustments. Initially, the Belgians believed that powerful allies like France and Britain would come to their aid if invaded. This belief shaped their military preparations, with little thought given to aligning closely with these potential allies. The formation of the Anglo-French Entente in 1904 subtly shifted Belgian perceptions, making them feel more like a British protectorate.

In 1910, Belgium established a General Staff, but its leadership saw changes, with Lieutenant-General Harry Jungbluth retiring in 1912 and his successor, Lieutenant-General Chevalier de Selliers de Moranville, not appointed until 1914. De Moranville’s late arrival led to hurried planning for army mobilization, including discussions with railway officials just days before World War I.

Belgian troops were strategically positioned in central Belgium, ready to defend against invasions from any direction. The focus was on the National redoubt of Belgium, while the fortified positions of Liège and Namur guarded the frontiers. Upon mobilization, the King took command, deciding the army’s concentration point. However, the Belgian army faced challenges: the rearmament plan was disruptive, and the troops were disorganized and inadequately trained. They relied on a central position for a tactical delay against invaders but needed strong fortifications for effective defense. This led to a compromised military strategy that combined defensive positions with forward deployments at Liège and Namur, reflecting a blend of Belgian caution and French offensive theories.

The German military strategy at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century was marked by a focus on offensive operations against France, balanced with a defensive approach towards Russia. This strategy, rooted in concerns about Germany’s numerical inferiority and the need for rapid mobilization and concentration, was heavily influenced by the evolving power of modern weaponry. German planners recognized that direct frontal assaults would likely be costly and yield limited success, especially in the face of modernized French and Russian fortifications along the German borders.

Alfred von Schlieffen, who led the Imperial German General Staff from 1891 to 1906, developed a plan aiming to bypass the strong French fortifications through a northern flank offensive. This approach sought to exploit a local numerical superiority to quickly secure a decisive victory. By 1898-1899, the plan involved a swift passage through Belgium, threatening Paris from the north.

Helmuth von Moltke the Younger, Schlieffen’s successor from 1906, harbored doubts about the predictability of French responses and adjusted the strategy accordingly. He modified the deployment to allow for either a central attack or a two-pronged envelopment, reinforcing the left flank facing France. Despite these adjustments, the primary thrust of the German force was still to move through Belgium, aiming to push the French armies back across a series of rivers including the Meuse, Aisne, Somme, Oise, Marne, and Seine. This strategy aimed to either encircle and annihilate the French forces in a northern pincer movement or create conditions favorable for German victories either in the center or in Lorraine, along the shared border.

In the critical hours spanning the end of July and the beginning of August 1914, a series of rapid and momentous decisions by various governments escalated tensions and led directly to the outbreak of World War I. On the night of July 31 to August 1, the German government issued an ultimatum to Russia and declared a state of Kriegsgefahr (imminent danger of war) during the day. Simultaneously, the Ottoman government commenced mobilization, and the London Stock Exchange closed, reflecting the growing international anxiety.

On August 1, significant military movements began. The British government mobilized its navy, and Germany not only ordered a general mobilization but also declared war on Russia. Hostilities started along the Polish frontier. France responded by ordering a general mobilization. The next day, Germany escalated the situation dramatically by sending an ultimatum to Belgium, demanding access through its territory while German troops entered Luxembourg. Military operations commenced along the French border, and the German light cruiser SMS Augsburg bombarded Libau. Britain, in response, assured naval protection for the French coast.

By August 3, tensions reached a boiling point. Belgium rejected Germany’s demands, leading the British government to guarantee military support to Belgium against any German invasion. Germany declared war on France, prompting the British government to order a general mobilization. Italy declared neutrality in these unfolding events.

The situation reached a climax on August 4. The British government issued an ultimatum to Germany, and at midnight between August 4 and 5, Central European Time, Britain formally declared war on Germany. Belgium, finding itself at the center of the conflict, severed diplomatic relations with Germany, which in turn declared war on Belgium. German troops crossed into Belgian territory and launched an attack on Liège, marking the beginning of widespread and devastating warfare across Europe.

Liège, strategically located at the meeting point of the Meuse and Ourthe Rivers, is nestled in a deep ravine with the Ardennes to the south and Maastricht in the Netherlands and Flanders to the north and west. This city, a crucial junction on the main railway lines from Germany to Brussels and Paris, was central to Schlieffen and Moltke’s plans for an invasion of France. Liège, with its significant industrial development, posed a formidable challenge to any invading force.

The city’s primary line of defense was an impressive ring of twelve forts, constructed about 6-10 kilometers from the city center in 1892. These forts, the work of renowned 19th-century fortress engineer Henri Alexis Brialmont, were strategically placed approximately 4 kilometers apart, designed to support each other. However, they were primarily intended for frontal defense, not all-around protection.

These forts varied in design: five were large and triangular, four were smaller triangles, and two were small squares. Constructed of concrete, each fort was surrounded by a ditch and barbed-wire entanglements, with the superstructures buried, leaving only mounds of concrete, masonry, and soil visible.

The armaments of the forts were substantial. The larger forts boasted two armored turrets each with two 210 mm guns, a turret with two 150 mm guns, and two cupolas with a 210 mm howitzer each. Additionally, four retractable turrets contained a 57 mm quick-firer each, with a retractable searchlight behind the 150 mm turret capable of illuminating 2-3 kilometers. The smaller forts were similarly equipped, albeit on a smaller scale.

Despite their formidable appearance, the forts had some limitations. The heavy guns and quick-firers used outdated black powder ammunition, which created large smoke clouds, obscuring visibility. The maximum range of the 150 mm guns was 8,500 meters, but in reality, the smoke reduced effective range to about 1,500 meters.

Inside, the forts were equipped with magazines for ammunition storage, crew quarters for up to 500 men, and electric generators for lighting. Daily necessities for the fortress troops were provided, but crucial facilities like latrines, showers, kitchens, and the morgue were located in less protected areas, susceptible to becoming hazardous if fumes from exploding shells accumulated due to the natural ventilation system of the forts.

The fortifications around Liège, while robust in design, had several significant vulnerabilities and limitations in their operational setup. The forts were equipped for communication via telephone and telegraph, yet the lines were exposed, not buried, making them susceptible to damage. Although smaller fortifications and trench lines between the forts were part of Brialmont’s original plan, they remained unbuilt. This lack of intermediate defenses left gaps in the fort’s protective coverage.

The garrison troops themselves were not at their full capacity. Many were from local guard units with minimal training, a consequence of the ongoing reorganization of the Belgian army that began in 1911 and was not due to be completed until 1926. The total force defending the forts included around 26,000 soldiers from the 3rd Infantry Division and the 15th Infantry Brigade, along with about 6,000 fortress troops and members of the Garde Civique, a paramilitary unit. These forces, armed with rifles and machine guns, were tasked with defending the spaces between the forts. However, the total strength of about 32,000 men and 280 guns was insufficient for the task of fully manning both the forts and the field fortifications.

As of early August 1914, the garrison commander faced uncertainty regarding the availability of troops, as it remained possible until August 6 that the entire Belgian army might move towards the Meuse.

Observing the terrain from the forts was challenging due to numerous ravines crisscrossing the area. The interval defenses, hastily constructed just before the battle, proved inadequate to prevent German infiltration. Moreover, the forts were vulnerable to rear attacks, which was the direction from which German bombardments were primarily launched.

The forts were initially designed to withstand shelling from the largest mobile artillery of the 1890s, the 210 mm guns. However, by 1914, the German army had access to much larger 420 mm howitzers and could also call upon Austro-Hungarian 305 mm howitzers. The Belgian forces, led by Lieutenant-General Gérard Léman and comprising the 3rd Division and the attached 15th Infantry Brigade, faced a formidable challenge in defending Liège with their approximately 32,000 troops and 280 guns.

In the early days of August 1914, the German military recognized that the garrison in Liège was larger than they had initially expected. Furthermore, the Belgians had used the time afforded by their prompt mobilization to strengthen the defenses between the forts at Liège. To counter this, the Germans planned a rapid and decisive operation, a coup de main, scheduled for August 4, which was just the third day of their mobilization. This operation was to be executed by six reinforced brigades and the II Cavalry Corps, under the command of the X Corps, and would be concentrated around Aachen, Eupen, and Malmedy.

Major-General Erich Ludendorff, the 2nd Army Quartermaster General, was assigned to the staff of the X Corps. Ludendorff’s involvement was key due to his familiarity with the plan, a result of his previous role as Chief of the Deployment Department of the General Staff. The strategy was to launch a surprise attack on the night of August 5-6, break through the ring of fortresses, and seize control of Liège, along with its vital road and rail networks.

The German invasion commenced on August 4. In a strategic move to pacify and manage the civilian population, aeroplanes dropped leaflets urging calm among the Belgian civilians, while cavalry and cyclists advanced ahead of the infantry. On the right flank, the II Cavalry Corps, including the cavalry Division Garnier and the 34th Infantry Brigade, pushed forward to secure crossings over the Meuse at Visé. Their objectives were to scout towards Brussels and Antwerp and to prevent the Belgian army from disrupting the German assault on Liège.

During the German advance into Belgium in the sweltering heat of August 1914, their progress was hampered by numerous challenges. Roadblocks impeded their movement, and at Visé, the cavalry encountered a blown bridge and small-arms fire from the west bank. Although German Jäger units managed to push the Belgians out of the village, the delayed arrival of the 34th Brigade’s bridging train and fire from the Liège forts rendered the area too dangerous to hold.

Several German brigades, including the 27th, 14th, and 11th, successfully reached their objectives, stretching from Mortroux to Julémont, Herve, and Soiron. The 9th Cavalry Division, followed by the 2nd and 4th Cavalry Divisions, overcame numerous obstacles south of the Vesdre river, secured crossings over the Ourthe, and captured the bridge at Poulseur. The 38th Brigade advanced to Louveigne and Theux, while the 43rd Brigade reached Stoumont and La Gleize. The night was fraught with difficulties, including sniper fire from civilians and bombardment from the forts, as the brigades prepared for the next day’s attack.

The Garnier Division’s cavalry struggled to cross the river at Lixhe until early morning due to artillery fire from Liège. The 34th Brigade managed to cross by 10:30 p.m., but had to leave their artillery and supplies behind.

The 27th Brigade positioned itself from Argeteau to St. Remy and La Vaux, and began mortar fire on the forts by afternoon. However, their attack on Fort Barchon was repelled. The 14th and 11th Brigades encountered resistance at Forêt. Meanwhile, the 9th Cavalry Division rested its horses and secured the Ourthe and Amblève river crossings. The southern brigades consolidated positions along the Ourthe at Esneux, Poulseur, and Fraiture, guarding against reported cavalry movements between Huy and Durbuy.

By the evening of August 5, the Germans were poised for the coup de main, but it was clear that the element of surprise had been lost due to the stiff resistance from the Belgian army and civilians in a densely populated area, with movement further slowed by hedges and fences. A German envoy sent to the fortress commander in Liège received a defiant response: Frayez-vous le passage (You must fight your way through). General Emmich, recognizing that any delay would favor the defenders, decided to proceed with the plan for a swift attack.

On July 30th, the Belgian General Staff’s Chief proposed a defense strategy against a potential German invasion by positioning the Belgian field army along the Gete River near Hannut, Sint-Truiden, Tienen, Hamme, and Mille. However, the King rejected this plan, favoring a more westerly positioning from Perwez, Tienen, Leuven, to Wavre, to better respond to a German incursion. By August 1st, Belgium positioned a division each in Liège and Namur. On August 3rd, these two fortresses were tasked with resisting any invasion, while the main army focused on defending Antwerp and awaited aid from France and Britain, co-guardians of Belgian neutrality. In Liège, General Léman led the 3rd Division and the 15th Brigade of the 4th Division, which had arrived from Huy overnight on August 5-6, bolstering the garrison to around 30,000 troops. Léman strategically positioned the infantry to counter assaults from the east and south.

The landscape and fortifications around Liège were conducive to a surprise attack, as the areas between the forts were not well-maintained and some sections were intersected by deep ravines, which the fortress artillery couldn’t effectively target. The Belgian General Staff had initially planned for a peacetime garrison of about 6,000 soldiers, supplemented by roughly 3,000 members of the Garde Civique. The assault strategy involved several brigades: the 34th Brigade attacking between Forts Loncin and Pontisse, the 27th Brigade aiming to break through between the Meuse River and Fort Evegnée, the 14th Brigade advancing between Forts Evegnée and Fléron, and the 11th Brigade moving between Forts Fléron and Chaudfontaine. Concurrently, the 38th and 43rd brigades were to attack between the Ourthe and Meuse rivers. The II Cavalry Corps was tasked with encircling the fortress and regrouping to the northwest. Due to the challenging terrain, the attacking forces were to advance in marching columns, led by vanguards, carrying slung rifles to be used only on command. They were to wear white armbands and use the password Der Kaiser for identification. The plan was to bypass the outer defenses in darkness, allowing a daytime assault on Liège.

In a dramatic clash in the north, the 34th Brigade, commanded by Major-General von Kraewel, found themselves in a precarious position. With eight battalions but lacking their artillery support—since the rest of their forces were stranded across the Meuse—their assault commenced under the cloak of darkness at 2:30 a.m. on August 6th. Launching their attack from the village of Hermée, they were immediately met with a hail of shrapnel from Belgian artillery, throwing the German infantry into disarray.

A battalion veered off towards Pontisse, while the main force carved a path into Herstal. In Herstal, a fierce, close-quarters battle erupted, with German soldiers engaging not only Belgian troops but also armed civilians in a brutal house-to-house fight. The battle raged on, and the Germans managed to seize Préalle, albeit under the relentless flanking fire from the forts at Liers and Pontisse.

In a near-turn of fate, troops under Major von der Oelsnitz infiltrated Liège and almost captured General Léman, the Military Governor, before facing death or capture themselves. As dawn broke, the brigade, battered and intermingled, found itself on high ground northwest of Herstal, having sustained heavy losses.

But the Belgians were not done yet. They launched a fierce counter-attack from Liège, and the German troops found themselves trapped under a relentless bombardment from the forts at Liers and Pontisse. The situation turned dire for the Germans around 10:15 a.m., when Kraewel, recognizing the futility of their position, ordered a retreat. This retreat, however, was far from a respite. The German forces had to navigate a deadly path between the forts, enduring even more casualties. Their retreat stretched all the way back to the Meuse at Lixhe, with the brigade suffering a staggering 1,180 casualties.

The 27th Brigade, led by Colonel von Massow, faced a challenging advance, hindered by the maze of houses, hedges, and fences that restricted their maneuverability. The brigade’s progress was further impeded by the heavy artillery fire from forts Wandre and Barcheron. In the chaos and confusion beyond Argenteau, the Germans found themselves in a dire situation, mistakenly firing upon each other in addition to engaging with the Belgians.

As dawn broke, the brigade had managed to make it to the vicinity of Fort Wandre. However, the situation quickly turned as Belgian reinforcements arrived, compelling Massow to order a strategic withdrawal back to Argenteau.

Meanwhile, to the east, a second column of the brigade was stymied at Blegny, near Fort Barcheron. Learning of the challenges faced by the other columns, they retreated to Battice.

Further south-east, the 11th Brigade under Major-General von Wachter embarked on an assault through St. Hadelin and Magnée. The brigade’s advance was severely hindered by the narrow passageways between buildings, which not only slowed their progress but also made them vulnerable to small-arms fire from the Belgians. By 5:30 a.m., they had only reached Romsée, where the Belgian 14th Regiment had established robust defenses. The Germans overcame the Belgians, but only after bringing in artillery support. However, their advance towards Beyne-Heusay was mired in difficulty.

Amidst uncertainty about the security of their flanks, Wachter made the decision to retreat to the ravines east of Magnée. This maneuver was