Painters: Biographies of Botticelli, Bruegel, Francisco Goya, Giotto, Johannes Vermeer, Leonardo Da Vinci, Raphael, Rembrandt, and Whistler

By Kelly Mass

This book bundle includes biographies of the following famous artists:

- Botticelli
- Bruegel
- Francisco Goya
- Giotto
- Johannes Vermeer
- Leonardo Da Vinci
- Raphael
- Rembrandt
- Whistler

• Language: English
• Publisher: Efalon Acies
• Release date: Feb 10, 2024
• ISBN: 9791223006184

Book preview

By Kelly Mass

Summaries from History

Botticelli

Biography of the Popular Italian Painter in the Early Renaissance

By Kelly Mass

Summaries from History

Chapter 1: Who Was Sandro Boticelli?

Sandro Botticelli, born Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi, stands as a luminary within the realm of early Late Renaissance Italian painters. While his posthumous acclaim experienced a downturn, the late nineteenth century witnessed a revival, spearheaded by the Pre-Raphaelites, leading to a reevaluation of his artistic contributions. Despite originating from the latter part of the Renaissance, Botticelli's works emanate a distinctive blend of linear grace reminiscent of late Italian Gothic and early Renaissance painting.

The oeuvre of Botticelli encompasses a diverse array of subjects, ranging from religious themes, including numerous renditions of the Madonna and Child often shaped in the round tondo format, to portraiture, and the mythological subjects that have come to define his legacy. Among his most celebrated masterpieces are The Birth of Venus and Primavera, housed in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence. Botticelli's artistic journey unfolded predominantly within the confines of his native Florence, with brief interludes in Pisa in 1474 and the Sistine Chapel in Rome in 1481–82, marking exceptions to his steadfast presence in his hometown.

Although only the Mystic Nativity (National Gallery, London) bears a discernible date (1501), a meticulous examination of archival records provides insights into the evolution of Botticelli's style. The 1470s witnessed his ascent as an autonomous master, reaching the pinnacle of renown. The ensuing decade, the 1480s, proved to be his zenith, marked by the completion of iconic Madonnas and grand mythological compositions. The 1490s ushered in a more personal and stylized phase, deviating from the mainstream. His later works reveal a return to a style often characterized as more Gothic or archaic, setting him apart from contemporaries like Leonardo da Vinci and the emerging High Renaissance painters. Botticelli's artistic odyssey, spanning shifting styles and epochs, remains a testament to his enduring influence on the tapestry of Renaissance art.

Chapter 2: His Early Life and Early Works

Botticelli's journey began in the heart of Florence, where he took his first breath in a house on Borgo Ognissanti Street, now bearing his name. This vibrant city, a crucible of Renaissance creativity, would become both the backdrop and muse for his artistic endeavors. An undetermined birthdate shrouds the arrival of Sandro, the youngest among the progeny of the tanner Mariano di Vanni d'Amedeo Filipepi. His early years unfolded within the rhythm of Ognissanti, a neighborhood teeming with weavers and craftsmen, intermingled with pockets of affluence exemplified by notable families like the Rucellai, renowned bankers and wool-merchants.

Amidst the hum of daily life, Botticelli's father transitioned from tanning to the guild of gold-beaters in 1460, paving the way for familial exposure to the world of artistry. According to Giorgio Vasari's Life of Botticelli, the budding artist initially tread the path of a goldsmith before destiny beckoned him toward the realm of painting.

The Rucellai family, central figures in Florence's socio-economic tapestry, cast a lasting influence on Botticelli's narrative. The construction of the Palazzo Rucellai, an architectural marvel conceived by Leon Battista Alberti, unfolded between 1446 and 1451, shaping the skyline of the Ognissanti neighborhood. The symbiotic relationship between the Rucellai and Botticelli families extended to dwelling arrangements, with Botticelli's kin renting their abode from the affluent Rucellai.

In 1464, Botticelli's father acquired property in Via Nuova, a locale that became the artist's residence from 1470 onward. This dwelling, shared with his brothers Giovanni and Simone, bore witness to the evolution of Botticelli's craft, a somewhat unconventional practice in the artistic circles of the time. The Vespucci family, notable neighbors, brought both influence and support, with Amerigo Vespucci, renowned for lending his name to the Americas, emerging as a steadfast patron of Botticelli's artistry.

The moniker Botticelli, meaning little barrel, found its origin in the rotund figure of Sandro's brother, Giovanni, affectionately known as Botticello. A document from 1470 officially christened Sandro as Sandro Mariano Botticelli, marking his complete embrace of the name.

Botticelli's artistic apprenticeship under Fra Filippo Lippi, a prominent figure in Florentine art and a favorite of the influential Medici family, commenced around 1461 or 1462. This pivotal connection would lay the foundation for Botticelli's transformative journey, guiding him toward the zenith of Renaissance artistry.

The painter Sandro Botticelli was heavily influenced early on by his teacher, Fra Filippo Lippi. Lippi, based in Prato near Florence during this period, taught Botticelli intimate yet emotionally poignant compositions featuring graceful figures delicately rendered through subtle contrasts of light and shadow. Lippi was frescoing the apse of Prato Cathedral around 1467 when he departed to work in Spoleto, likely marking the end of Botticelli's apprenticeship. Scholars debate whether Botticelli may have also briefly worked under other artists like the Pollaiuolo brothers or Andrea del Verrocchio, though his participation is not conclusively proven.

After Lippi passed away in 1469, Botticelli appears to have opened his own independent workshop by June of that year. He was commissioned to paint the panel Fortitude as part of a series of the Seven Virtues for Piero del Pollaiuolo, following Pollaiuolo's style and composition but with a more lyrically posed figure and fanciful decorative details demonstrating Botticelli's emerging individual sensibility.

By 1472, Botticelli had taken on his first apprentice, Lippi's own son Filippino Lippi. Many of Botticelli and Filippino's Madonna and Child paintings from this period are difficult to distinguish, suggesting close collaboration. Other joint works included cassoni panels, now divided between several museums, highlighting the artistic synthesis of master and apprentice. Though Botticelli absorbed critical early influences, he would go on to develop his own iconic style, earning his reputation as one of the great painters of the Early Renaissance.

Around 1470–72, Botticelli's artistic prowess found expression in a monumental sacra conversazione, now housed in the Uffizi. This masterpiece, an early altarpiece, serves as a testament to Botticelli's innate mastery of composition. Within its confines, eight figures are orchestrated with a seamless naturalness, nestled within the embrace of a closed architectural setting.

A gem from this period, Saint Sebastian in Berlin, unveiled in 1474 for a pier in Santa Maria Maggiore, Florence, stands as another testament to Botticelli's artistic virtuosity. This masterpiece, distinct from the considerably larger altarpiece by the Pollaiuolo brothers dedicated to the same saint (now housed in the National Gallery, London), portrays Saint Sebastian with a demeanor akin to Pollaiuolo's rendition. However, Botticelli injects a sense of serenity and equilibrium into his portrayal. The saint's almost bare form is meticulously outlined with anatomical precision, a testament to the young artist's profound exploration of the human body. The captivating winter landscape, subtly referencing the saint's January feast day, draws inspiration from contemporary Netherlandish painting, a trend resonating within Florentine society.

In the unfolding tapestry of Botticelli's career, a notable chapter beckoned in 1474 when the authorities in Pisa extended an invitation. The task at hand was the frescoing of the Camposanto, a colossal undertaking initiated by Benozzo Gozzoli, who dedicated over two decades to the project. Although recorded payments echo through historical corridors until September, the tangible fruits of Botticelli's labor remain elusive. It appears that whatever he commenced was left incomplete. Nevertheless, this episode marked a pivotal juncture in Botticelli's trajectory, exemplified by the reach of recognition stretching beyond Florence, a testament to the burgeoning renown of this emerging artistic luminary.

Among Botticelli's early works, art historian Giorgio Vasari singled out the Adoration of the Magi commissioned for Santa Maria Novella around 1475-1476. With its prominent display in a popular Florence cathedral, this painting boosted Botticelli’s reputation. Though commissioned by a banker outside the Medici inner circle, it includes prominent portraits of Cosimo de’ Medici, his sons Piero and Giovanni, and grandsons Lorenzo and Giuliano. The donor and remarkably, Botticelli himself gazing out, are also depicted. The varied perspectives and expressive faces were praised. This Adoration is considered the pinnacle of Botticelli’s early style.

In 1478, Botticelli painted a large fresco for Florence’s customs house depicting the hanging of the leaders of the Pazzi plot against the ruling Medicis. This pittura infamante was a Florentine practice to shame traitors. The fresco gave Botticelli his first major fresco job, possibly helping earn him a summons to Rome. After protests from the Pope, the figure of Archbishop Francesco Salviati was removed in 1479 and the rest destroyed in 1494 when the Medicis were briefly expelled and the Pazzis returned to power.

Other lost masterpieces from this period include a tondo Madonna commissioned by a Roman banker as a gift for Cardinal Francesco Gonzaga, likely raising Botticelli’s profile in Rome. A century later, another fresco was destroyed during Vasari’s remodeling of the Palazzo Vecchio, seat of Florence's government. Though many works were lost, Botticelli's reputation was firmly established by the late 1470s through prestigious Florence and Rome commissions.

In 1480, the Vespucci family commissioned Botticelli to paint St. Augustine for their parish church Ognissanti in Florence. The church also hired Domenico Ghirlandaio to paint a facing St. Jerome mural, depicting both saints writing in their cluttered studies. This direct competition, as in previous cases, pushed Botticelli to showcase his full abilities. Art historian Ronald Lightbown considers the fresco, Botticelli's earliest surviving, to be his finest.

The mural includes one of the practical jokes Vasari claims Botticelli was renowned for. In the open book above the saint, amidst scribbled nonsense, one line reads Where is Brother Martino? He left the house. What happened to him? He's standing outside the Porta al Prato. Botticelli likely overheard this from the Umiliati, the church's governing order. As Lightbown suggests, Botticelli felt the example of Jerome and Augustine likely to be thrown away on the Umiliati as he knew them."

By slyly inserting an inside joke into this prestigious church fresco, Botticelli demonstrated his wit and irreverence. But he also created a brilliant St. Augustine that met the Vespucci family's expectations and held its own against Ghirlandaio's accompanying St. Jerome. The healthy rivalry pushed Botticelli to new heights in this early surviving fresco, which art historians rank among his finest works. Through his talent and sly humor, Botticelli navigated the tricky world of important Florentine commissions.

Chapter 3: His Paintings in Rome

In 1481, Pope Sixtus IV extended a summons to Botticelli and other distinguished artists from Florence and Umbria to embark on a monumental endeavor—frescoing the pristine walls of the Sistine Chapel. Envisioned as the chapel's pièce de résistance, this grand initiative left an enduring mark on art history. While the majority of these frescoes have endured the passage of time, they bear the indelible influence of Michelangelo's later interventions, a testament to the evolution and intersection of artistic legacies across centuries.

This undertaking unfolded against the backdrop of complex political dynamics. The Florentine contribution to this artistic spectacle is believed to have materialized within the context of a diplomatic resolution between Lorenzo Medici and the Pope. Tensions had escalated due to Pope Sixtus IV's involvement in the Pazzi plot, leading to the excommunication of Lorenzo and other Florentine leaders, triggering a minor conflict known as the Pazzi War.

The iconographic narrative devised for the chapel comprised dual cycles—depicting the Life of Christ and the Life of Moses. These cycles, strategically placed on opposite sides of the chapel, wove together to symbolize the authority of the Papacy. Among Botticelli's contributions were three significant panels: the Temptations of Christ, Youth of Moses, and Punishment of the Sons of Corah. Additionally, he crafted envisioned portraits of popes in the upper tier and mysterious subjects in the lunettes above—an area now occupied by Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling. The possibility of a fourth image on the opposite end, now lost to time, is also attributed to Botticelli.

Given the expansive scope of the project, each artist enlisted a team of assistants, working in tandem to complete the colossal panels in a matter of months. While Giorgio Vasari credits Botticelli with overarching artistic responsibility, modern scholars suggest that Pietro Perugino, the initial recruit, may have held a more pivotal role.

The Vatican authorities undoubtedly provided thematic guidance, dictating subjects and key elements for execution. Despite a consistent scale and compositional layout, featuring bustling foreground figures juxtaposed with expansive landscapes, the frescoes presented a multifaceted program affirming Papal supremacy. Surpassing stylistic divergences, the scenes exhibited a cohesive narrative, with consistent horizon levels and recurring motifs such as Moses adorned in uniform yellow and green attire.

Botticelli, distinctive among his peers, infused each scene with a persistent triptych-like arrangement. This artistic choice delineated a major central group flanked by two side groups, each encapsulating distinct actions. Botticelli's innovative approach not only contributed to the visual richness of the Sistine Chapel but also underscored his prowess in redefining compositional norms within the context of this monumental undertaking.

During his time in Rome, Botticelli produced numerous frescos for the Sistine Chapel. In works like the Temptations of Christ and Youth of Moses, the main figure of Christ or Moses appears multiple times - up to seven within one fresco. While the frescos have been damaged and restored over time, scholars agree Botticelli was primarily responsible for their design, likely conceiving the cartoons for ten surviving paintings himself and contributing substantially to five more.

The Punishment of the Sons of Corah contains a near identical replication of a classical work by Botticelli. He recreated a central portrait from Rome's Arch of Constantine in his later The Story of Lucretia around 1500. Though he did not spend time painting antiquities around Rome as many contemporaries did, he clearly studied and absorbed classical exemplars.

After returning to Florence around 1482, Botticelli produced no further documented travels abroad except a lost commission for the Medici estate a year later. By this point, his style had fully matured. While not conceived as a pair, his two most famous works today - Primavera and The Birth of Venus, both at the Uffizi - date from this period. As large-scale paintings drawing on Greek mythology, they were virtually unparalleled in Western art since antiquity. Endlessly studied, they epitomize the Italian Renaissance. Scholars have analyzed their emulation of ancient painters, Neo-Platonic philosophy, and possible models and patrons. Smaller mythologies like Venus and Mars and Pallas and the Centaur receive similar scholarly attention for their significance.

With these innovative secular works, Botticelli departed from earlier religious focus. Freshly returned from Rome, he drew on a deep knowledge of classical art to create his own poetic interpretations of mythological subjects, earning him lasting fame.

Though complex in meaning, Botticelli’s mythological paintings share an immediate visual appeal that accounts for their tremendous popularity. They feature strong, beautiful female figures in dreamlike realms of emotion, with an erotic undercurrent. Scholars heavily analyze the Neo-Platonic poetry and philosophy influencing these humanist works. Rather than depicting specific texts, their significance derives from a combination of sources. Vasari praised their grace, while John Ruskin noted their rhythmic linearity. Indeed, Botticelli’s elegant linear style finds its greatest success in these pastel-colored, softly contoured paintings.

The Primavera and Birth of Venus were seen by Vasari in the mid-1500s at the Villa di Castello, owned by Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici. They were long assumed to be painted for the villa until a 1975 Medici inventory suggested otherwise - Primavera for Lorenzo’s Florence townhouse and Venus for another location.

Though Botticelli painted few mythological subjects, they are now his most famous works. Venus and Mars in London’s National Gallery is a much smaller panel, originally fitted into furnishings or wood paneling as a spalliera painting. The wasps around Mars’ head suggest it was painted for the Vespucci family, whose name means little wasps and crest features wasps. We see Venus watching as infant satyrs play with Mars’ military gear, rousing him after lovemaking by blowing a conch. Likely a marital gift to decorate a bedroom, this intimate scene captures Botticelli’s poetic imagination.

With these evocative mythologies, Botticelli departed from tradition to create innovative secular masterpieces that still enchant viewers over 500 years later.

In three of the predominant mythologies of the Renaissance era, the presence of Venus stands as a poignant emblem, echoing the profound influence of Renaissance Neoplatonism. This philosophical movement, juxtaposing divine love with Christian principles, imbued the cultural milieu with a rich tapestry of symbolism and allegory. Notably, the fourth mythology, Pallas and the Centaur, forges a distinctive connection to the Medici legacy through the emblem adorning Pallas' garment.

In this artistic tableau, the two central figures, rendered in almost life-size proportions, beckon contemplation, inviting a myriad of interpretations that transcend the surface narrative. Beyond the fundamental theme of passion yielding to reason, layers of personal, political, and philosophical nuances infuse the composition, crafting a multidimensional narrative that mirrors the complexities of the Renaissance mindset.

In the year 1483, the esteemed patron Antonio Pucci sought to immortalize his son Giannozzo's union with Lucrezia Bini through a commission that bore the creative imprint of Botticelli. The result was a series of panels fashioned in the spalliera or cassone style, commemorating this auspicious marriage. Each panel unfolded the captivating narrative of 'Nastagio degli Onesti,' drawn from Boccaccio's Decameron, specifically the eighth novel of the fifth day. The third panel, a visual crescendo in this artistic chronicle, proudly displayed the heraldic emblems of both the Medici lineage and the families of the betrothed couple.

This artistic endeavor becomes not merely a visual testament to matrimonial bliss but a profound exploration of narrative complexity and symbolic resonance. Botticelli's masterful brushstrokes breathe life into the tales, inviting viewers to unravel the layers of meaning woven into each meticulously