The Microbiology, Pathogenesis and Zoonosis of Milk Borne Diseases: Milk Hygiene in Veterinary and Public Health

The microbiology, pathogenesis and zoonosis of milk borne diseases emphasizes milk borne disease, diagnosis, and treatment with a strong focus on milk hygiene, zoonotic diseases and the pathogenesis of microbial agents from milk origin. The book also elucidates various pathogenic diseases and describes the evaluation of the severity of diseases from milk and milk products and its remedial measure after application of drugs

In 22 chapters the reader is introduced to the microbiology, pathogenesis, and zoonosis of milk borne diseases. It describes general aspects of milk borne zoonosis, prevention of milk borne diseases and risk analysis, assessment, practice and quality management in milk hygiene.

This book is appropriate for undergraduate, and post-graduate doctoral students, as well as academicians who need to evaluate the importance of zoonotic diseases and clinical manifestation triggered by various agents. It is also useful in s training capacity, to secondary professionals, and pharma companies with applied research on zoonotic diseases from milk origin.

• Emphasizes the importance of milk hygiene to prevent milk-borne diseases
• Provides an overview of milk borne diseases, diagnosis, and treatment
• Identifies the various milk-borne zoonotic pathogens and their impact on public health

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Jan 26, 2024
• ISBN: 9780443138065

Book preview

Section 1

Milk hygiene

Outline

1. General principles and concepts of milk hygiene in public health

2. State-of-the-art in milk processing for improvement of the quality of pasteurized milk and UHT milk

3. Good hygienic practices of dairy equipment during milk production and processing in the milk plant

4. Principles and recent applications of novel nonthermal processing technologies in milk production

5. An insight on microbial flora of milk and milk products

6. Influence of production processes on assessment of safety and quality of fermented milk

7. Lactose intolerance and milk allergy

8. Prevention and control of milk contamination, adulterants, antimicrobial residues, and agrochemicals

9. Clinical and subclinical mastitis

10. Milk hygiene, udder health and management

1: General principles and concepts of milk hygiene in public health

Manesh Kumar, Vijay J. Jadhav, Dinesh Mittal, and Rajesh Khurana     Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar, Haryana, India

Abstract

Milk from a healthy animal is considered as safe and may not be responsible for transmission of any disease/infection causing agents to the public through its consumption. However, sometimes the milk is thought to be responsible for transmission of many zoonotic diseases/infections, when it is obtained from any animal suffering from such infection(s). In some other circumstances, i.e., contaminated milking environment, infected milk handlers, faulty milking practices, dirty milking utensils, or exterior surface of the soiled animals may be accountable for the contamination of fresh milk during milking or during processing of raw milk in the milking shed. Further, due to lack of personal hygiene of the milk handlers during milking, poor sanitation and environmental hygiene, many disease-causing agents may get transmitted to milk and this milk may be a source of disease transmitting pathogens to the public. Therefore, to reduce or to prevent the transmission of zoonotic diseases or food-borne zoonoses causing agents to human being through milk, strict sanitary and hygienic practices should be kept in place at each step, such as collection, chilling, processing, storage, and distribution following hygienic practices from farm to table and require attention to hygiene for ensuring that the milk is safe and wholesome for consumption.

Keywords

Contamination; HACCP; Hygiene; Milk hygiene

Importance of milk and milk hygiene

It has been reported that by 2050, the world human population is likely to reach 9.7 billion, creating vital necessity to address food security and sustaining health globally (United Nations, 2015) and dairy industry is solution for these problems. Milk and milk-derived products are nutritious and rich in proteins, essential fatty acids, vitamins, micronutrients, prebiotics, and probiotics, which are acknowledged to contribute significantly to food security and human health (Hoppe et al., 2006; Garcia et al., 2019). Further, consumption of milk and milk-based products has been exhibited encouraging impact on public health, especially on cardiovascular and gastrointestinal microbiome of the human body (Garcia et al., 2019). Moreover, milk is indispensable for holistic growth and cognitive development among infants and children. Several studies have shown correlation among consumption of milk and reduction in stunting, and the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that 25%–33% of dietary protein content should come from dairy for children suffering from malnourishment (Garcia et al., 2019; van Stuijvenberg et al., 2015; Michaelsen et al., 2009).

Milk from a healthy animal is considered as safe and may not be responsible for transmission of any disease/infection-causing agents to the public through its consumption. But, sometimes the milk is thought to be responsible for transmission of many zoonotic diseases/infections, when it is obtained from any animal suffering from such infection(s). In some other circumstances, i.e., contaminated milking environment, infected milk handlers, faulty milking practices, dirty milking utensils, or exterior surface of the soiled animals may be accountable for the contamination of fresh milk during milking or during processing of raw milk in the milking shed. Further, due to lack of personal hygiene of the milk handlers during milking, poor sanitation, and environmental hygiene, many disease-causing agents may get transmitted to milk and this milk may be a source of disease transmitting pathogens to the public. Therefore, to reduce or to prevent the transmission of zoonotic diseases or food-borne zoonoses causing agents to human being through milk, strict sanitary and hygienic practices should be kept in place at each step, such as collection, chilling, processing, storage, and distribution following hygienic practices from farm to table. Moreover, milk hygiene is considered vital for several following mentioned reasons.

Public health

Improper hygienic practices may lead to the spread of harmful bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens that can cause serious illnesses. The unpasteurized raw milk may contain harmful bacteria such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes, which may possess significant public health importance. Sometimes, the chemical contaminants in milk and milk products may also lead to serious public health concerns.

Milk and milk products quality

For both the taste of the milk and milk products and their nutritional value, the hygienic milk production and handling practices is very important as these practices may help to ensure the high quality of milk and milk products and thus rendering milk and milk products free from contaminants.

Economic impact

Lack of hygiene at farm level or at any point during milk procurement from milking animals to consumers may lead to milk production loss and quality, which can have a noteworthy economic impact on dairy farmers and milk processors. Additionally, milk or milk products contaminated with some pathogen or other contaminants may need not to be accepted and thus resulting in financial losses.

Environmental impact

Contaminated milk may also have negative impact on the environment by contaminating water sources with certain pathogens and/or other chemical contaminants.

Compliance with regulatory requirements

Milk hygiene practices are often mandated by regulatory agencies to ensure that milk products are safe for human consumption. By complying with these requirements, the dairy industry can avoid penalties and legal consequences.

Sustainable dairy industry

A sustainable dairy industry depends on producing safe and high-quality milk products. Proper milk hygiene practices are essential for achieving this goal and ensuring the long-term sustainability of the dairy industry.

Therefore, it is worthy to mention that maintaining high standards of milk hygiene is crucial for protecting public health, ensuring the quality and safety of milk products, and minimizing economic and environmental impacts, compliance with regulatory requirements and sustainable dairy industry.

Definitions

Milk

Milk may be defined as "wholesome, fresh, clear lacteal secretion obtained by the complete milking of one or more apparently healthy udders, excluding that obtained within 15 days before and 5 days after calving or such periods as may be necessary to render the milk colostrum free, and containing the minimum prescribed percentage of milk fat and milk solids-not-fat" (De, 1991). According to Food Safety and Standards Regulations, 2011 (FSSAI, 2011), milk may be defined "as the normal mammary secretion derived from complete milking of healthy milch animal without either addition there to or extraction there from unless otherwise provided in these Regulations. It shall be free from colostrum."

Milk hygiene

Milk hygiene may be defined as "study of all the methods necessary to ensure the production, handling, and final delivery to the consumer of clean, wholesome, unadulterated milk or milk products-cream, butter, buttermilk, ice cream, etc." (Ahmed, 2013). Further, milk hygiene refers to the practices and measures that are put in place to ensure that milk is free from harmful microorganisms, chemicals, and other contaminants that may compromise its safety and quality. This is important because milk is a highly perishable food that can quickly become contaminated, if it is not handled and processed properly.

Public health

Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals" (Gatseva and Argirova, 2011; Charles and Amory, 1920).

Sources of milk contamination

There are numerous sources of milk and milk products contamination, which are mentioned in the below sections.

Cow-related factors

The health of cows and their environment can have a significant impact on the quality and safety of milk. Further, the microbial analysis of raw milk is exaggerated by microorganisms present in the teat canal and on the surface of teat skin (Adkins et al., 2018). For example, cows that are infected with mastitis (an inflammation of the udder) can produce milk that is contaminated with bacteria. Several bacterial pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, and Escherichia coli are considered as major culprits for bovine mastitis. Additionally, nowadays Mycoplasma mastitis has increased in many countries (Fox et al., 2005). Similarly, cows that are fed with contaminated feed or water with pathogens may also produce contaminated milk.

The milk may be contaminated from chemicals, i.e., metals, antibiotics, hormones, and pesticides. The metals may get entry into milk by contaminated food, fodder, and/or contaminated drinking water. Metals such as chromium and nickel may contaminate directly to milk from equipments used in the dairy industry (Fischer et al., 2016). Metals such as lead, cadmium, chrome, nickel, and cobalt can contaminate cows and other environments can contaminate milk at different levels and cause serious public health problems (Lahiji et al., 2016). Moreover, fat-soluble characteristics of hormones favor their high persistence and presence in cow’s milk due to the high-fat contents (Calahorrano-Moreno et al., 2022). The prednisolone contamination in milk is reported as it is used for treating the mastitis udders infection in cows’ combination with amoxicillin and clavulanic acid (Liu et al., 2016). The pesticides intoxication in cattle is mainly through contaminated surface and groundwater (Dubny et al., 2018). Further, Ronchi and coworkers described in a case report that high level of organochlorine (OCs) pesticides contamination in farm soil was associated with the OCs in cattle blood and milk, which poses a serious health hazard to humans and animals (Ronchi and Danieli, 2008).

Human-related and poor hygienic factors

The milk may be contaminated by human handlers or their activities. For example, if the milking equipment is not properly cleaned and sanitized, it can harbor bacteria that can get entry to the milk. Likewise, if the milk is not handled and stored at the appropriate temperatures, bacteria can grow and multiply which may intensify the risk of contamination. The poor hygiene practices may lead to microbial milk contamination, pathogens dissemination, and udder contamination can occur at milking time between cows, hands of milkier men, and milk machines (Gillespie et al., 2009). This may also lead to the formation of biofilms on the sprinklers of cooling systems, pipes, cooling tanks, storage, and transport tanks (Tran and Prindle, 2021). Moreover, biofilm formation is an important problem for the dairy industry as raw milk contains a diverse variety of microorganisms and dairy products are susceptible to microbial spoilage. The established biofilms can become a habitat for harmful organisms like L. monocytogenes (Weiler et al., 2013).

Environmental factors

Environmental factors such as animal shed and surroundings, soil, water, feed stuffs, and air quality can also contribute to milk contamination. For example, if cows graze on pasture that has been contaminated with fecal matter, the bacteria can be transferred to their milk. Similarly, if water sources used for cleaning the milking equipment are contaminated, the milk may also become contaminated. It has been reported that the bad hygiene practices and poor cleanliness procedure of equipment, the surrounding air in the milk parlor, as well as other environmental factors including housing conditions, water supply, and during feeding have an important effect on the milk contamination (Pangloli et al., 2008). Further, contaminated environments are a potential source of food-borne pathogens and spoilage bacteria present in raw milk bulk tank in the dairy farm, which are affecting the milk quality and emerging public health risk (Viljoen, 2001).

Processing-related factors

Milk can also become contaminated during processing and storage. For example, if the equipment used for pasteurization is not properly cleaned and sanitized, it can harbor bacteria that can contaminate the milk. Similarly, if milk is not processed and packaged in a sterile environment, bacteria can be introduced. It has been reported that under low insufficient temperature during the long-time milk storage possibility of microbial contamination of milk may occur (Lin et al., 2016).

Overall, milk and milk products can become contaminated at various stages, from cow-related factors to human handling and poor hygienic factors, environmental factors, and processing-related factors. It is important to implement rigorous hygiene practices and quality control measures such as good manufacturing, hazard analysis, and critical control point analysis at every stage of production to minimize the risk of contamination and ensure the safety and quality of milk products.

Hygienic milk production

Hygienic milk production is essential to ensure the safety and quality of milk. Milk is a highly perishable food that can easily become contaminated with harmful bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens during production, transportation, and storage. Therefore, it is crucial to follow good hygienic practices throughout the milk production process to prevent the spread of infections and diseases, mainly the food-borne and zoonotic diseases. Various key elements involved in clean milk production have been depicted in Fig. 1.1. Further, here are some essential practices for hygienic milk production.

Good farming practice

The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP), a science-based quality management system approach, has been developed to ensure the production of safe foods approach has been implemented throughout the food and dairy industry. The steps involved in the HACCP has been depicted in Fig. 1.2. Several agencies such as International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF), WHO, the Codex Alimentarius, and food regulatory agencies in various countries are recommending the implementation of HACCP system. Briefly, for development and execution of the HACCP system, the following terms, concepts, and terminology as depicted in Table 1.1 are valuable (Cusato et al., 2012; ICMSF, 1986). Further, proper implementation of HACCP relaying on the principles as described by Mayes and Mortimore (2003) are depicted in Table 1.2.

Figure 1.1  Depicting the various methods for clean milk production.

Figure 1.2  Various Principles of HACCP.

Table 1.1

Adapted from Cusato et al. (2012) and ICMSF (1986).

Table 1.2

Adapted from Mayes and Mortimore (2003).

The HAACP principles application to dairy farms may be adapted as mentioned in Table 1.2, but, it is considered to be not yet usually feasible. Several limitations, i.e., critical multidisciplinary review of management processes, complexity in establishing limits through identification of critical control points, the use of routine surveillance procedures, and effective record keeping and documentation of standard processes restrict the widespread adoption of HACCP program to dairy farms (Ruegg, 2003). Moreover, as an alternative to HACCP, European Commission has proposed the formulation of guide to good farming practices (European Commission, 2004). Good dairy farming practices necessitate that people working and supervising at the animal farms have skills in animal husbandry, hygienic milking of animals and administration of veterinary drugs.

Proper animal health management

Proper management of animal health is vital for hygienic milk production. The milk-producing animals should be healthy, and regular check-ups should be done to prevent the spread of diseases. The conditions such as mastitis and gastrointestinal tract infections lead to contamination of milk via the interior of teats and exterior of teats, respectively (Vissers and Driehuis, 2008). In this connection, it is worthy to mention that the animal health management is aimed at achieving and sustaining a disease-free herd (Hillerton, 2004). It can be attained when infected animals are treated or removed (e.g., culling) from the herd, and thus new infections/diseases are prevented. Moreover, to sustain a disease-free herd, a closed herd (no import of animals from other farms) is an important measure. Sick animals should be separated and treated from the rest of the herd for prevention of disease transmission of pathogens from one animal to another animal. Additionally, good quality feed, facility hygiene, and hygienic milking operations are important to prevent infection of healthy animals with pathogens present in the farm environment.

Cleanliness of the milking environment

The milking area and equipment should be kept clean, disinfected, and dry. Cleaning should be done after each milking session, and equipment should be inspected regularly for wear and tear. The equipments should be kept clean and sanitize, which includes the following steps.

Predraining

It should be carried out thoroughly to reduce product loss, minimize the load on the sewage, and this helps in cleaning.

Prerinsing with water

Prerinsing aids for flushing of milk residues, prevents drying and sticking of milk to the surface. The water used for prerinsing should be lukewarm and temperature should not more than 60°C in order to avoid coagulation of proteins.

Cleaning with detergent

Combined detergents at an optimum temperature and mechanical rubbing helps in removal of soil from the surface. The common alkali detergents used in dairy are sodium carbonate, caustic soda, sodium sesquicarbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium sulfate at a concentration of 0.2%–2.0% while sodium silicate is used as a protective agent for aluminum. Further, acid detergents widely used include nitric acid at 0.5% and phosphoric acid at 2.0% and help to remove the milk stones and water scale.

Hot water rinsing (postrinsing)

Postrinsing with lukewarm water removes all traces of detergent, displaced dirt, and prevents deposition of lime scale.

Sanitizing

It involves effective bactericidal treatment with chemical/thermal agents to reduce the bacterial count including pathogens to a safe level on the utensils and equipments. Sanitizing solution used are hypochlorites, organic solution of chlorine with 100–200 mg/L of available chlorine, mixed halogens @ 25 mg/L of available Iodine.

Postdraining and drying

This is to prevent contamination of milk with the residual sanitizer.

Personal hygiene and health of milkers

Milkers should maintain good personal hygiene, including washing hands, wearing clean clothes, and using gloves when necessary. They should also avoid smoking, chewing gum, and eating while milking.

Proper milk handling and storage

Milk should be handled carefully and transported in clean, covered containers. Storage should be done at low temperatures, and milk should be kept away from other food items to avoid contamination.

Regular testing and quality checks

Milk should be regularly tested for quality and safety. Testing can include screening for harmful bacteria, such as E. coli, Salmonella, and L. monocytogenes, and monitoring for any signs of spoilage. The milk should also be checked for residues of drugs, pesticides, and other foreign substances in milk which are considered as threats for public health.

Community awareness and participation

Promote community awareness and participation in milk hygiene and quality control through education and communication campaigns. Further, educate milk traders and consumers about the importance of milk hygiene, the risks of consuming contaminated milk, and the steps that can be taken to ensure the safety and quality of milk. Encourage community participation in milk quality control by promoting the formation of milk quality committees or other community-based organizations.

Good hygiene practices and quality control measures are essential for maintaining the safety and nutritional value of milk and ensuring the health and well-being of consumers. The community awareness among women and farmers have been depicted in Figs. 1.3 and 1.4, respectively.

By following these practices, farmers and dairy processors can produce high-quality milk that is safe for human consumption and meets the required standards for sale.

Pest control

All efforts should be made to minimize the presence of insects, rats, and mice before use of pesticides or rodenticides. Although stables and milking parlors (if used) attract such pests, good preventive measures such as proper building construction and maintenance (if applicable), cleaning, and removal of fecal waste can minimize pests. Manure accumulations should not be allowed in vicinity to milking areas. Feed stores attract the pest, so these may be constructed at a suitable place away from the milk parlor. If it is necessary to resort the chemical pest control measures, such products should be approved officially for use in food premises and used in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.

Figure 1.3  Community Awareness among women through demonstration of assays related to milk affected with mastitis.

Figure 1.4  Community awareness among farmers through demonstration of assays related to milk.

Veterinary drugs

Good animal husbandry practices should be used to decrease the likelihood of animal disease and thus reduce the use of veterinary drugs. The appropriate aspects of the Guidelines on the Control of Veterinary Drug Residues in Milk and Milk Products should be applied to curtail or prevent the introduction of drug residues in milk or these products. Authorized medicinal products and medicinal premixes by competent authority should only be used in animal feed. Withdrawal period in animals that have been treated with veterinary drugs that can be transmitted to milk should be specified for the particular veterinary drug. As a ready reference for such verification MRLs establishments for veterinary drugs residues may be specified for milk. A record of the products used, including the quantity, the date of administration, and the identity of animals should be kept by the veterinarian and/or the livestock owner or the collection center. To verify the effectiveness of on-farm controls of veterinary drug use and in meeting established MRLs, appropriate sampling schemes and testing protocols should be used.

Milk hygiene in relation to public health

Milk hygiene is vital for maintaining public health. Milk is a highly perishable product and can be easily contaminated with harmful pathogens, i.e., bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens. These pathogens can cause diverse range of diseases, including foodborne illnesses/food-borne zoonoses that can be serious or even fatal to the public. Moreover, proper milk hygiene practices help in preventing contamination and the spread of disease, mainly the food-borne and/or food-borne zoonoses. Milk-associated health problems may be grouped as follows.

Diseases caused by microorganisms and their toxins

Pathogenic organisms in milk originate from dairy animal, human handler, and the environment. Milk serves as an excellent culture and protective medium for bacterial pathogens. Some pathogenic bacteria, e.g., Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Brucella, do not multiply freely in milk and viruses do not multiply at all but they may survive in milk and produce disease unless they are destroyed by heat (Table 1.3).

Specific and nonspecific sensitizing agents

Antibiotics and antimicrobial drugs

Causes of occurrence of antimicrobial residues in milk

• Antimicrobials are widely used in the treatment of mastitis, intramammary drugs, e.g., penicillin G, ampicillin, tetracyclines, sulfa drugs. Once administered, residues of such drugs (very less concentration usually at parts per million and billion level) can persist in milk for as long as 4 days.

Health problems due to antimicrobial residues

• Antimicrobials such as penicillin are allergic to some sensitive persons. When such person is exposed to even small quantity of drugs through consumption of milk containing residues of such drugs, they develop strong allergic reactions.

Table 1.3

• Some antimicrobial drugs are known to be carcinogenic. Hence low dose dietary exposure of such drugs for long time may result into development of cancer.

• Another important problem associated with antimicrobial residues is development of antibiotic-resistant pathogens derived from udder to the consumers.

• Chloramphenicol residues can cause aplastic anemia in humans.

Technological problem due to antimicrobial residues

Fermented milk products are prepared by adding starter culture bacteria in milk. If this milk contains antimicrobial residues, then these drugs partially inhibit the growth of starter culture bacteria. This leads to improper or faulty fermentation which results into spoilage of end product or development of abnormal flavor and texture in the final product.

Milk allergy

Some persons, particularly infants and young children, are sensitive to milk protein. Allergic properties are present in this fraction. Such individuals after consumption of milk develop hypersensitivity reaction with varied signs such as eczema, pylorospasm, colic, diarrhea, and listlessness. Some persons may show other signs such as cough, feeling of choking, gasping, asthma, nasal cold, sneezing, and toxemia. These signs and symptoms disappear on withdrawal of milk from diet. Children sensitive to cow’s milk may or may not be able to tolerate milk of other animals. For such people, milk boiled for prolonged period (3–6 hour) is safer than pasteurized milk because albumin fraction of milk gets coagulated by heat. This may be the reason that the problem is less common where boiling of milk is common.

Toxic chemicals and other extraneous substances in milk

• Pesticides: Dairy cows may be exposed to pesticides through contaminated feed or pasture, and these chemicals can accumulate in the milk. Pesticides such as OCs, organophosphates, and pyrethroids have been detected in milk samples.

• Antibiotics: Dairy farmers sometimes use antibiotics to treat infections in cows. If these antibiotics are not properly managed, they can end up in the milk and pose a risk to human health. Antibiotic residues in milk can also contribute to antibiotic resistance.

• Hormones: Some dairy farmers use hormones to increase milk production in cows. These hormones can end up in the milk and may have negative effects on human health.

• Heavy metals: Milk can also contain heavy metals such as lead and cadmium, which can accumulate in the body over time and cause health problems.

• Mycotoxins: Mycotoxins are toxic substances produced by certain molds that can contaminate animal feed. If cows eat feed contaminated with mycotoxins, the toxins can be present in their milk.

• Radionuclides: Contamination sources for radionuclides are areas where nuclear weapon tests are conducted or near nuclear energy plants. Examples: Strontium-90, Iodine-131. Air may get contaminated from the nuclear reactors which may contaminate the environmental pastures and thereby exposes the animals and subsequent secretion in the milk. Radionuclide such as strontium accumulates in bones, whereas iodine accumulates in thyroid gland tissue and may cause thyroid cancer.

• Plant toxins: Cattle grazing in new localities or during drought may ingest poisonous plants. Once ingested, toxic principles may be excreted in milk. However, poisoning cases in humans due to presence of such toxins in milk are rare since toxin may be very less in milk. Examples are milk sickness due to active principle tremetol in plants like white snakeroot and Jimmy weed. That results into symptoms such as muscular weakness, vomiting, epigastric pain, constipation. It is common in United States than other countries. In India, there are cases of endemic glaucoma due to leaves of prickly yellow poppy fed in feed in India.

Remedies: To minimize the presence of these harmful substances in milk, it is important to follow good agricultural practices and use safe and effective methods to manage pests and diseases in cows. Milk can also be tested for the presence of these substances to ensure that it is safe for consumption.

Way forward

It is worthy to mention that milk production, processing, and handling require careful attention to hygiene for ensuring that the milk is safe and wholesome for consumption. Some of the keyways in which milk hygiene is vital for public health are

• Preventing the spread of diseases: Milk and milk products are considered as an excellent breeding ground for harmful food-borne bacteria, such as Salmonella, E. coli, and L. monocytogenes. These pathogens can cause severe illnesses, such as gastroenteritis, sepsis, and meningitis. By implementing proper hygiene practices, including regular cleaning and sanitization of milking equipment and facilities, milk can be kept free from harmful bacteria and thus preventing the spread of disease.

• Protecting vulnerable populations: The susceptibility toward foodborne illnesses among vulnerable populations such as infants, children, pregnant women, and the elderly is on higher side. By maintaining proper milk hygiene, we can help in safeguarding these susceptible populations from the potentially life-threatening consequences of foodborne disease and or food-borne zoonoses.

• Maintaining the quality of milk: For maintaining the quality of milk, including its taste, texture, and nutritional content, proper milk hygiene is indispensable. Furthermore, milk that is not handled properly can spoil quickly and which may lead to an unpleasant taste and potential health