Sacred Texts of the World: A Universal Anthology

By Ninian Smart and Richard D. Hecht

A perennial best-seller, this collection of readings remains a favorite of teachers of world religions for its impartial tone and its balance of major contemporary religious traditions with primitive, ancient, and esoteric religions.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Publishdrive
• Release date: Jan 1, 2000
• ISBN: 9780824599171

Book preview

The Powerful Dead

Introduction

We begin our anthology of sacred texts of the world with a representative selection of religious documents from the great urban civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece and Rome, and the Maya and Aztec of Mesoamerica. The emergence of these great urban civilizations was due in great part to the agricultural revolutions which took place in the ancient Near East in the 4th and 3rd millennia BCE, and during the first five or six hundred years of the Common Era in the New World of the Americas. These revolutions in the sources of food and its cultivation allowed humans to live in new and larger social configurations. Urbanization, with all the complexities of city life and intricate social differentiation, is mirrored in the religious traditions of these civilizations. We should recall that by the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE the Old Kingdom of Egypt was firmly established, and that at a roughly contemporary period in Mesopotamia, the Sumerian city-states of Uruk, Kish and Ur had become major cultural and political centres. In the 2nd millennium, Knossos, Mycenae and Troy in the eastern Mediterranean had begun to form the foundations of ancient Greece. Early in the 1st millennium, Carthage emerged as a major cultural centre in the western Mediterranean and the year 753, by our best estimates, saw the founding of Rome. By the end of the same millennium, much of the power of Egypt and Mesopotamia had given way to Greece and Rome, and the Maya had emerged in southern Mesoamerica. The destiny of Zoroastrianism, the major religious tradition of ancient Persia or Iran, is somewhat different from its Mesopotamian neighbours. It was given its initial formulation in the hymns of Zoroaster (called Zarathustra in Old Iranian), who lived probably in the 6th century BCE. Zoroaster was a priest of the older Persian religion, which contained many elements similar to the Vedic tradition of India, and his reformulation was based in great part on his visionary experiences with Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord. His tradition was enlarged and reinterpreted by the Magi and other later reformers until Iran was conquered by Islam in 635 CE. The Zoroastrian tradition, along with Judaism and Christianity, was tolerated in the expanding Muslim world because of its monotheism and its sacred books. However, from the 10th century onward, Zoroastrians emigrated to India, where they are called Parsees and now number approximately 100,000 in and around Bombay. The religious tradition of the Parsees in modern India represents an important continuation of the ancient religious tradition of Zoroaster.

Each of these civilizations had its own history; there were periods of conflict, both internal and external, and periods of cultural regeneration. Often the history of one civilization impinged upon those around it; this was especially the case around the Mediterranean. Each civilization flourished and declined, but the power of its religious traditions continued to exercise considerable force long after the civilization had passed away or been absorbed by another. The great political and cultural synthesis of east and west envisioned by Alexander quickly fell in pieces after his death, but the ideal of the cosmopolis, the true universal city, continued throughout much of late antiquity. Greeks and Romans were more than a little fascinated by what they saw of the Near East and Egypt. Often the religious traditions of these civilizations, in traditional or new guises, found their way into the Greek city-states or to Rome itself, and they were often considered equal or superior to the traditional Greek and Roman religions. The synthesis of these civilizations and their religious traditions in late antiquity provided the cultural matrix of much of our history in the West. Indeed, the histories of both Judaism and Christianity are dependent upon their interaction with the religious traditions of these civilizations. The power was such that geographical distances separating one civilization from another were often obliterated by philosophical and religious reflection. That the distance between Jerusalem and Athens could easily be overcome is suggested by the famous statement of Numenius of Apamea, a thorough-going Platonist of the late 2nd century CE, ‘What is Plato, but Moses speaking in Attic Greek.’

The power of these religious traditions was not limited to their immediate successors. They have been equally powerful in their rediscovery. The rediscovery of classical traditions from ancient Greece and Rome during the Renaissance and the recovery of ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian texts in the 19th century have been crucial influences in the formulation of the modern spirit of humanism. These religious traditions, now separated from us by at least 2000 years, have continued to exert their power in the way we construct our history and identity. Likewise, the religious traditions of the Maya and Aztec have continued to inform and shape the histories and identities of modern Central American cultures and nations.

Many of the problems that we have identified in the Introduction concerning the nature of sacred texts are most difficult to address in the context of the powerful religious traditions of the past. For example, in what way can we speak of a ‘canon’ of ancient Mesopotamian or ancient Egyptian literature? Lists of authoritative texts may have existed at one time but they are now beyond our grasp. Many of the documents collected here are found in forms which differ considerably from the forms found in Judaism, Islam or Hinduism. Some have been found in tombs and pyramids, others represent the formulations and descriptions of churchmen who were ambivalent about the meaning of Aztec religion, but nevertheless thought it merited collection and transmission, and at least one text reproduced here is drawn from something we might immediately recognize as a novel or short story. We begin the dimension of sacred narrative with a description from Zoroaster on the primordial choice between life and non-life which strikes the initial dualism between Ahura Mazda and Ahriman, between good and evil. The dualism between good and evil was to have an impact upon ancient Israel, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Second, we include a selection from the ancient Babylonian creation narrative, the Enuma Elish, in which the young Marduk, charged by the assembly of the gods to wrest divine authority and the Tablets of Fate from Tiamat and Kingu, slays them both, creates the world or cosmos from the body of Tiamat and human beings from the dust and blood of Kingu. Human beings, ‘the black-headed ones’ as the text calls them, contain within them the rebelliousness of Tiamat’s consort, and are created for only one purpose, to serve the gods. Third, we have included a short selection from Hesiod’s Theogony in which the epic poet describes the generation of the first gods. Lastly, we have chosen a short selection from the Mayan Popol Vuh, which similarly describes the creation of the first semi-divine beings and the world.

We have illustrated the dimension of doctrine first by Akhenaten’s great hymn to the Aten or solar disc. This Egyptian text from the 14th century BCE represents one of the greatest religious documents in human history. The Aten is described as the totally transcendent god whose providence extends to all peoples. Next we include a Zoroastrian text describing the judgment of the soul after death. Our third selection is a short segment of Plato’s dialogue ‘The Timaeus’ in which Socrates asks Timaeus to explain his thoughts on god and creation. Unlike many other Platonic dialogues, Socrates does not offer corrections to Timaeus’ observations, and this description stands at the heart of many later western reflections on the nature of god and creation. Last, we include a short selection from one of the many narratives concerning Quetzalcoatl, one of the most important divine figures of the ancient Maya and Aztec. Here, we learn how Quetzalcoatl descends into the realm of the dead in order to retrieve the bones of man and ultimately becomes the benefactor of humans.

We begin the dimension of ritual with a text taken from the Pyramid of Unas at Saqqara. Here, we find a description of the Pharaoh’s ascent to the assembly of the gods. This text properly belongs in this dimension in that along with many other so-called Pyramid Texts it formed the liturgy of the Pharaoh’s burial, and its recitation ensured the Pharaoh’s immortality. Second, we include an ancient Zoroastrian hymn of sacrifice to the sun, a ritual in which older, pre-Zorastrian deities, such as Mithra, continued to persist after Zoroaster’s cultic reforms. Third, we have included a short selection from the late 3rd century-Neoplatonist, Iamblichus, in which he describes the nature and function of true prayer. Lastly, we have chosen the description of one of the most important rituals surrounding the Aztec god Tezcatlipoca, from Fray Bernardino de Sahagún’s 16th-century General History of the Things of New Spain. His description of this sacrifice and many other aspects of Aztec religion and daily life remain among our best documents for reconstructing the religious worldview of the Aztec.

The dimension of institutional expression is illustrated first by an ancient Egyptian hymn to Osiris and Horus. Here we learn something of the sacred narrative of Osiris, but also something of the nature of kingship in ancient Egypt. Second, we have reproduced part of the ancient Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh, in which this king is brought to understand the real responsibilities of kingship. Third, we reprint a section of Virgil’s Fourth Eclogue, in which the poet envisions a new age under the leadership of Augustus. Lastly, we include a very short description from Sahagún on the city of Teotihuacan, the first Aztec capital and ‘city of the gods’. This description underscores the importance of cities, not only in Mesoamerica, but throughout the history of religious traditions, as the centres of ritual activity and the places which connect the world of human beings to the world of the gods.

Our first text representing the dimension of experience is a prophetic text from ancient Egypt in which the lector-priest, Neferti, is asked to describe either what has already happened or what will happen. He then offers a description of the future in which the land will be destroyed by chaos, and things will only be restored through the intervention of a future king. Second, we include a Sumerian lamentation over the destruction of Ur. This text presents us with one of the most forceful descriptions of the human experience of being cut off from the gods and the divine realm. Our third text is from Apuleius’ Metamorphoses. Here Lucius, who much earlier has been transformed into an ass, is rescued by the goddess Isis. This text is taken from a popular novel of the 2nd century CE, but it nevertheless presents us with one of the most detailed descriptions of the epiphany of this Egyptian goddess. Our last selection is once again drawn from Sahagún, and describes how the ancient Aztecs sought confession for their transgressions. The similarity between the Aztec world and Sahagún’s own Christianity at this point must have impressed him greatly, and we can still detect how the Aztec understood this experience as one which re-created him as he was at the beginning of time.

We have chosen to illustrate the dimension of ethics first by a representative text from the Egyptian Book of the Dead. Here, the nobleman Ani recites a negative confession, attesting that he has not committed any transgression. Our second example of the ethical dimension is taken from the very beginning of the law code of the Babylonian King Hammurabi. This is one of the oldest legal documents from the Ancient Near East, and its specific laws formed the basis of all ethical conduct for the ancient Babylonians. This code of law was not understood as a simple human creation, but as something inspired by the sun god Shamash himself. Violation of the law was thus not only a violation of proper human conduct, but also a violation of the divine will. The third selection is taken from the beginning of Plotinus’ Enneads. Here, this very important philosopher in the tradition of Plato, who has often been understood as a mystic, describes the highest virtues, those which affect the higher mind and allow human beings to become like the gods. The last text is taken from Sahagún and describes the ethical function of the Aztec wise man. Here, we quickly realize that ethics meant something more comprehensive that ethical action: indeed, the wise man was the very centre of all life and the guarantor of proper human existence.

Sacred Narrative 1

The Primordial Choice: Gāthā: Yasna 30

One of the most fundamental aspects of Zoroaster’s thought in the 6th century BCE was the opposition between good and evil. This dualism is articulated in the opposition between Ahura Mazda, referred to in this text as the Wise One, and Angra Mainyu or Ahriman, the chief servant of the Druj or Lie. Ahura Mazda is surrounded by six or seven beings called Amesha Spentas, ‘the Beneficent Immortals’, who often appear as hypostatizations of his goodness, omnipotence and omniscience. Angra Mainyu is the full embodiment of the principle of evil. According to this text, there was a meeting of the two spirits at the very beginning of time. They were free to choose between ‘life and non-life’, and this choice gave birth to the fully actualized principles of good and evil, corresponding to the Kingdom of Justice or Truth and the Kingdom of the Lie. This text indicates that human history is a re-enactment of the very same choice between good and evil. The hymn then encapsulates time from the beginning to the end, for in the end human beings will be judged according to the choice they have made in life.

Now will I speak to those who will hear

Of the things which the initiate should remember,

The praises and prayer of the Good Mind to the Lord

And the joy which he shall see in the light who has remembered them well.

Hear with your ears that which is the sovereign good;

With a clear mind look upon the two sides Between which each man must choose for himself,

Watchful beforehand that the great test may be accomplished in our favour.

Now at the beginning the twin spirits have declared their nature,

The better and the evil,

In thought and word and deed. And between the two

The wise ones choose well, not so the foolish.

And when these two spirits came together,

In the beginning they established life and non-life,

And that at the last the worst experience should be for the wicked,

But for the righteous one the Best Mind.

Of these two spirits, the evil one chose to do the worst things;

But the most Holy Spirit, clothed in the most steadfast heavens,

Joined himself unto Righteousness;

And thus did all those who delight to please the Wise Lord by honest deeds.

Between the two, the false gods also did not choose rightly,

For while they pondered they were beset by error,

So that they chose the Worst Mind.

Then did they hasten to join themselves unto Fury,

That they might by it deprave the existence of man.

And to him came Devotion, together with Dominion, Good Mind and Righteousness;

She gave perpetuity of body and the breath of life,

That he may be thine apart from them,

As the first by the retributions through the metal.

And when their punishment shall come to these sinners,

Then, O Wise One, shall thy Dominion, with the Good Mind,

Be granted to those who have delivered Evil into the hands of Righteousness, O Lord!

And may we be those that renew this existence!

O Wise One, and you other Lords, and Righteousness, bring your alliance,

That thoughts may gather where wisdom is faint.

Then shall Evil cease to flourish,

While those who have acquired good fame

Shall reap the promised reward

In the blessed dwelling of the Good Mind, of the Wise One, and of Righteousness.

If you, O men, understand the commandments which the Wise One has given,

Well-being and suffering – long torment for the wicked and salvation for the righteous –

All shall hereafter be for the best.

Sacred Narrative 2

Marduk Creates the World: The Enuma Elish Tablets

This text is taken from the Akkadian epic, the Enuma Elish, ‘When on High’, and perhaps dates back to the Old Babylonian period in ancient Mesopotamia at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE. The myth describes how the assembly of the gods was overturned by Tiamat and her consort Kingu, and the gods were forced to call upon a young, strong god, Marduk, to regain their position. We join the narrative as Marduk and Tiamat enter into combat. Tiamat and Kingu are ultimately vanquished and Marduk creates the world from the body of Tiamat, and man from earth and the blood of Kingu. This narrative may have served in the ancient Babylonian New Year festival as the liturgy of the king, who each year became Marduk, vanquished the enemies of the gods, and set the Tablets of Fate for the coming year.

Stand thou up, that I and thou meet in single combat!

When Tiamat heard this,

She was like one possessed; she took leave of her senses.

In fury Tiamat cried out aloud.

To the roots her legs shook both together.

She recites a charm, keeps casting her spell,

While the gods of battle sharpen their weapons.

Then joined issue Tiamat and Marduk, wisest of gods.

They strove in single combat, locked in battle.

The lord spread out his net to enfold her,

The Evil Wind, which followed behind, he let loose in her face.

When Tiamat opened her mouth to consume him,

He drove in the Evil Wind that she close not her lips.

As the fierce winds charged her belly,

Her body was distended and her mouth was wide open.

He released the arrow, it tore her belly,

It cut through her insides, splitting the heart.

Having thus subdued her, he extinguished her life.

He cast down her carcass to stand upon it.

After he had slain Tiamat, the leader,

Her band was shattered, her troupe broken up;

And the gods, her helpers who marched at her side,

Trembling with terror, turned their backs about,

In order to save and preserve their lives.

Tightly encircled, they could not escape.

He made them captives and he smashed their weapons.

Thrown into the net, they found themselves ensnared;

Placed in cells, they were filled with wailing;

Bearing his wrath, they were held imprisoned.

And the eleven creatures which she had charged with awe,

The band of demons that marched … before her,

He cast into fetters, their hands . . .

For all their resistance, he trampled them underfoot.

And Kingu, who had been made chief among them,

He bound and accounted him to Uggae.

He took from him the Tablets of Fate, not rightfully his,

Sealed them with a seal and fastened them on his breast.

When he had vanquished and subdued his adversaries,

Had. . . the vainglorious foe,

Had wholly established Anshar’s triumph over the foe,

Nudimmud’s desire had achieved, valiant Marduk

Strengthened his hold on the vanquished gods,

And turned back to Tiamat whom he had bound.

The lord trod on the legs of Tiamat,

With his unsparing mace he crushed her skull.

When the arteries of her blood he had severed,

The North Wind bore it to places undisclosed.

On seeing this, his fathers were joyful and jubilant,

They brought gifts of homage, they to him.

Then the lord paused to view her dead body,

That he might divide the monster and do artful works.

He split her like a shellfish into two parts:

Half of her he set up and ceiled it as sky,

Pulled down the bar and posted guards.

He bade them to allow not her waters to escape.

He crossed the heavens and surveyed the regions.

He squared Apsu’s quarter, the abode of Nudimmud,

As the lord measured the dimensions of Apsu.

The Great Abode, its likeness, he fixed as Esharra,

The Great Abode, Esharra, which he made as the firmament.

Anu, Enlil, and Ea he made occupy their places.

He constructed stations for the great gods,

Fixing their astral likenesses as constellations.

He determined the year by designating the zones:

He set up three constellations for each of the twelve months.

After defining the days of the year [by means] of [heavenly] figures,

He founded the station of Nebiru to determine their [heavenly] bands,

That none might transgress or fall short.

Alongside it he set up the stations of Enlil and Ea.

Having opened up the gates on both sides,

He strengthened the locks to the left and the right.

In her belly he established the zenith.

The Moon he caused to shine, the night to him entrusting.

He appointed him a creature of the night to signify the days:

‘Monthly, without cease, form designs with a crown.

At the month’s very start, rising over the land,

Thou shalt have luminous horns to signify six days,

On the seventh day reaching a [half]crown.

At full moon stand in opposition in mid-month.

When the sun [overtakes] thee at the base of heaven,

Diminish [thy crown] and retrogress in light.

[At the time of disappearance] approach thou the course of the sun,

And [on the twenty-ninth] thou shalt again stand in opposition to the sun.’

[The remainder of this tablet is broken away or too fragmentary for translation.]

When Marduk hears the words of the gods,

His heart prompts him to fashion artful works.

Opening his mouth, he addresses Ea

To impart the plan he had conceived in his heart:

‘Blood I will mass and cause bones to be,

I will establish a savage, man shall be his name.

Verily, savage-man I will create.

He shall be charged with the service of the gods that they might be at ease!

The ways of the gods I will artfully alter.

Though alike revered, into two [groups] they shall be divided.’

Ea answered him, speaking a word to him,

Giving him another plan for the relief of the gods:

‘Let but one of their brothers be handed over;

He alone shall perish that mankind may be fashioned.

Let the great gods be here in Assembly,

Let the guilty be handed over that they may endure.’

Marduk summoned the great gods to Assembly;

Presiding graciously, he issues instructions.

To his utterance the gods pay heed.

The king addresses a word to the Anunnaki:

‘If your former statement was true,

Do [now] the truth on oath by me declare!

Who was it that contrived the uprising,

And made Tiamat rebel, and joined battle?

Let him be handed over who contrived the uprising.

His guilt I will make him bear. You shall dwell in peace!’

The Igigi, the great gods, replied to him,

To Lugaldimmerankia, counsellor of the gods, their lord:

‘It was Kingu who contrived the uprising,

And made Tiamat rebel, and joined battle.’

They bound him, holding him before Ea.

They imposed on him his guilt and severed his blood [vessels].

Out of his blood they fashioned mankind.

He imposed the service and let free the gods.

After Ea, the wise, had created mankind,

Had imposed upon it the service of the gods –

That work was beyond comprehension;

As artfully planned by Marduk, did Nudimmud create it –

Marduk, the king of the gods divided All the Anunnaki above and below.

He assigned them to Anu to guard his instructions.

Three hundred in the heavens he stationed as a guard.

In like manner the ways of the earth he defined.

In heaven and on earth six hundred thus he settled.

After he had ordered all the instructions,

To the Anunnaki of heaven and earth had allotted their portions,

The Anunnaki opened their mouths And said to Marduk, their lord:

‘Now, O lord, thou who has caused our deliverance,

What shall be our homage to thee?

Let us build a shrine whose name shall be called ‘Lo, a chamber for our nightly rest’;

Let us repose in it!

Let us build a throne, a recess for his abode!

On the day that we arrive we shall repose in it.’

When Marduk heard this,

Brightly glowed his features, like the day:

‘Like that of lofty Babylon, whose building you have requested,

Let its brickwork be fashioned. You shall name it The Sanctuary.’

The Anunnaki applied the implement;

For one whole year they moulded bricks.

When the second year arrived,

They raised high the head of Esagila equalling Apsu.

Having built a stage-tower as high as Apsu,

They set up in it an abode for Marduk, Enlil and Ea,

In their presence he adorned it in grandeur.

In the base of Esharra its horns look down.

After they had achieved the building of Esaglia,

The Anunnaki themselves erected their shrines.

[. . .] all of them gathered,

[. . .] they had built as his dwelling.

The gods, his fathers, at his banquet he seated:

‘This is Babylon, the place that is your home!

Make merry in its precincts, occupy its broad [places].’

The great gods took their seats,

They set up festive drink, sat down to a banquet.

After they had made merry within it,

In Esagila, the splendid, had performed their rites,

The norms had been fixed [and] all [their] portents,

All the gods apportioned the stations of heaven and earth.

The fifty great gods took their seats.

The seven gods of destiny set up the three hundred [in heaven].

Enlil raised the bow, his weapon, and laid it before them.

The gods, his fathers, saw the net he had made.

When they beheld the bow, how skillful its shape,

His fathers praised the work he had wrought.

Raising it, Anu spoke up in the Assembly of the gods,

As he kissed the bow: ‘This is my daughter!’

He named the names of the bow as follows:

‘Longwood is the first, the second is [. . .];

Its third name is Bow-Star, in heaven I have made it shine.’

He fixed a place which the gods, its brothers [. . .]

After Anu had decreed the fate of the Bow,

And had placed the exalted royal throne before the gods,

Anu seated it in the Assembly of the gods.

When the great gods had assembled,

And had [. . .] the fate which Marduk had exalted,

They pronounced among themselves a curse,

Swearing by water and oil to place life in jeopardy.

When they had granted him the exercise of kingship of the gods,

They confirmed him in dominion over the gods of heaven and earth.

Anshar pronounced supreme his name Asaruluhi:

‘Let us make humble obeisance at the mention of his name;

When he speaks, the gods shall pay heed to him.

Let his utterance be supreme above and below!’

Most exalted be the Son, our avenger;

Let his sovereignty be surpassing, having no rival.

May he shepherd the black-headed ones, his creatures.

To the end of days, without forgetting, let them acclaim his ways.

May he establish for his fathers the great food-offerings;

Their support they shall furnish, shall tend their sanctuaries.

May he cause incense to be smelled, . . . their spells,

A likeness on earth of what he has wrought in heaven.

May he order the black-headed to revere him,

May the subjects ever bear in mind their god,

And may they at his word pay heed to the goddess.

May food-offerings be borne for their gods and goddesses.

Without fail let them support their gods!

Their lands let them improve, build their shrines,

Let the black-headed wait on their gods.

As for us, by however many names we pronounce, he is our god!

Let us then proclaim his fifty names . . .

Sacred Narrative 3

Creation according to Hesiod: Theogony

Here, the epic poet Hesiod (c 750 BCE) describes the generation of the cosmos from the void, the first gods and the castration of Sky (Uranus) by his son Cronus. Hesiod’s narrative continues beyond this point to describe how Zeus escaped the attack of his father Cronus and the final victory of Zeus andthe Olympian gods over the Titans.

First of all, the Voice (Chaos) came into being, next broad-bosomed Earth, the solid and eternal home of all, and Eros (Desire), the most beautiful of the immortal gods, who in every man and every god softens the sinews and overpowers the prudent purpose of the mind. Out of Void came Darkness and black Night, and out of Night came Light and Day, her children conceived after union in love with Darkness. Earth first produced starry Sky, equal in size with herself, to cover he on all sides. Next she produced the tall mountains, the pleasant haunts of the gods, and also gave birth to the barren waters, sea with its raging surges – all this without the passion of love. Thereafter she lay with Sky and gave birth to ocean with its deep current. Coeus and Crius and Hyperion and Iapetus; Thea and Rhea and Themia (Law) and Mnemosyne (Memory); also golden-crowned Phoebe and lovely Tethys. After these came cunning Cronus, the youngest and boldest of her children; and he grew to hate the father who had begotten him.

Earth also gave birth to the violent Cyclopes – Thunderer, Lightner, and bold Flash – who made and gave to Zeus the thunder and the lightning bolt. They were like the gods in all respects except that a single eye stood in the middle of their foreheads, and their strength and power and skill were in their hands.

There were also born to Earth and Sky three more children, big, strong, and horrible, Cottus and Briareus and Gyges. This unruly brood had a hundred monstrous hands sprouting from their shoulders, and fifty heads on top of their shouders growing from their sturdy bodies. They had monstrous strength to match their huge size.

Of all the children born of Earth and Sky these were the boldest, and their father hated them from the beginning. As each of them was about to be born, Sky would not let them reach the light of day; instead he hid them all away in the bowels of Mother Earth. Sky took pleasure in doing this evil thing. In spite of her enormous size, Earth felt the strain within her and groaned. Finally she thought of an evil and cunning stratagem. She instantly produced a new metal, grey steel, and made a huge sickle. Then she laid the matter before her children; the anguish in her heart made her speak boldly: ‘My children, you have a savage father; if you will listen to me, we may be able to take vengeance for this evil outrage: he was the one who started using violence.’

This was what she said: but all the children were gripped by fear, and not one of them spoke a word. Then great Cronus, the cunning trickster, took courage and answered his good mother with these words: ‘Mother, I am willing to undertake and carry through your plan. I have no respect for our infamous father, since he was the one who started using violence.’

This was what he said, and enormous Earth was very pleased. She hid him in ambush and put in his hands the sickle with jagged teeth, and instructed him fully in her plot. Huge Sky came drawing night behind him and desiring to make love; he lay on top of Earth stretched allover her. Then from his ambush his son reached out with his left hand and with his right took the huge sickle with its long jagged teeth and quickly sheared the organs from his own father and threw them away. The drops of blood that spurted from them were all taken in by Mother Earth, and in the course of the revolving years she gave birth to the powerful Erinyes (Spirits of Vengeance) and the huge Giants with shining armour and long spears. As for the organs themselves, for a long time they drifted round the sea just as they were when Cronus cut them off with the steel edge and threw them from the land into the waves of the ocean; then white foam issued from the divine flesh, and in the foam a girl began to grow. First she came near to holy Cythera, then reached Cyprus, the land surrounded by sea. There she stepped out, a goddess, tender and beautiful, and round her slender feet the green grass shot up. She is called Aphrodite by gods and men because she grew in the froth, and also Cytherea, because she came near to Cythera, and the Cyprian, because she was born in watery Cyprus. Eros (Desire) and beautiful Passion were her attendants both at her birth and at her first going to join the family of the gods. The rights and privileges assigned to her from the beginning and recognized by men and gods are these: to preside over the whispers and smiles and tricks which girls employ, and the sweet delight and tenderness of love.

Great Father Sky called his children the Titans, because of his feud with them: he said that they blindly had tightened the noose and had done a savage thing for which they would have to pay in time to come.

Sacred Narrative 4

Creation according to the Popol Vuh

The Popol Vuh is the most important surviving text of the ancient Maya. It was copied down after the Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica in the 16th century. Here, in the first chapter of this lengthy narrative, only the sea and the expanse of heaven exist in tranquillity at the beginning of time.

Admirable is the account – so the narrative opens – admirable is the account of the time in which it came to pass that all was formed in heaven and earth, the quartering of their signs, their measure and alignment, and the establishment of parallels to the skies and upon the earth to the four quarters thereof, as was spoken by the Creator and Maker, the Mother, the Father of life and of all existence, that one by whom all move and breathe, father and sustainer of the peace of peoples, by whose wisdom was premeditated the excellence of all that doth exist in the heavens, upon the earth, in lake and sea.

Lo, all was in suspense, all was calm and silent; all was motionless, all was quiet, and wide was the immensity of the skies.

Lo, the first word and the first discourse. There was not yet a man, not an animal; there were no birds nor fish nor crayfish; there was no wood, no stone, no bog, no ravine, neither vegetation nor marsh; only the sky existed.

The face of the earth was not yet to be seen; only the peaceful sea and the expanse of the heavens.

Nothing was yet formed into a body; nothing was joined to another thing; naught held itself poised; there was not a rustle, not a sound beneath the sky. There was naught that stood upright; there were only the quiet waters of the sea, solitary within its bounds; for as yet naught existed.

There were only immobility and silence in the darkness and in the night. Alone was the Creator, the Maker, Tepeu, the Lord, and Gucumatz, the Plumed Serpent, those who engender, those who give being, alone upon the waters like a growing light.

They are enveloped in green and azure, whence is the name Gucumatz, and their being is great wisdom. Lo, how the sky existeth, how the Heart of the Sky existeth – for such as the name of God, as He doth name Himself!

It is then that the word came to Tepeu and to Gucumatz, in the shadows and in the night, and spake with Tepeu and with Gucumatz. And they spake and consulted and meditated, and they joined their words and their counsels.

Then light came while they consulted together; and at the moment of dawn man appeared while they planned concerning the production and increase of the groves and of the climbing vines, there in the shade and in the night, through that one who is the Heart of the Sky, whose name is Hurakan.

The Lightning is the first sign of Hurakan; the second is the Streak of Lightning; the third is the Thunderbolt which striketh; and these three are the Heart of the Sky.

Then they came to Tepeu, the Gucumatz, and held counsel touching civilized life; how seed should be formed, how light should be produced, how the sustainer and nourisher of all.

‘Let it be thus done. Let the waters retire and cease to obstruct, to the end that earth exist here, that it harden itself and show its surface, to the end that it be sown, and that the light of day shine in the heavens and upon the earth; for we shall receive neither glory nor honour from all that we have created and formed until human beings exist, endowed with sentience.’ Thus they spake while the earth was formed by them. It is thus, veritably, that creation took place, and the earth existed. ‘Earth,’ they said, and immediately it was formed.

Like a fog or a cloud was its formation into the material state, when, like great lobsters, the mountains appeared upon the waters, and in an instant there were great mountains. Only by marvellous power could have been achieved this their resolution when the mountains and the valleys instantly appeared, with groves of cypress and pine upon them.

Then was Gucumatz filled with joy. ‘Thou art welcome, O Heart of the Sky, O Hurakan, O Streak of Lightning, O Thunderbolt!’

‘This that we have created and shaped will have its end,’ they replied.

Doctrine 1

Akhenaten’s Great Hymn to the Aten: From the Tomb of Amarna

Perhaps the most interesting figure in ancient Egyptian history is the so-called ‘renegade’ Pharoah, Amun-Hotep IV (1370–1353 BCE) who changed his name to Akhenaten, ‘The Spirit of Aten’, totally reorganized the Egyptian cult around the sun-disc, Aten, and moved his capital from Thebes northward to Akhetaten, ‘The Horizon of Aten’ (the modern Amarna). This was a major revolution in the religious history of ancient Egypt, although it was not, as many have suggested, a complete monotheistic revolution. This lengthy hymn from one of his courtiers describes the Aten’s life-giving powers in nature, Aten as creator of the universe, Aten as creating and sustaining all people, and as the true universal deity who protects foreign peoples as well. There are similarities of thought between this text and Psalm 104 of the Hebrew Bible (pages 68–9), but one should not construe these similarities as ‘borrowings’ or the result of some direct contact between the reform-minded Pharoah and the poets of the Psalms.

Adoration of Re-Harakhti-who-rejoices-in-lightland, In-his-name-Shu-who-is-Aten, living forever; the great living Aten who is in jubilee, the lord of all that the Disc encircles, lord of sky, lord of earth, lord of the house-of-Aten in Akhet-Aten; and of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, who lives by Maat,¹ the Lord of the Two Lands, Neferkheprure, Sole-one-of-Re; the Son of Re who lives by Maat, the Lord of Crowns, Akhenaten, great in his lifetime; and his beloved great Queen, the Lady of the Two Lands, Nefer-nefru-Aten Nfertiti, who lives in health and youth forever. The Vizier, the Fanbearer on the right of the King, [Ay]; he says:

Spendid you rise in heaven’s lightland,

O living Aten, creator of life!

When you have dawned in eastern lightland,

You fill every land with your beauty.

You are beauteous, great, radiant,

High over every land;

Your rays embrace the lands,

To the limit of all that you made.

Being Re, you reach their limits,

You bend them for the son whom you love;

Though you are far, your rays are on earth,

Though one sees you, your strides are unseen.

When you set in western lightland,

Earth is in darkness as if in death;

One sleeps in chambers, heads covered,

One eye does not see another.

Were they robbed of their goods,

That are under their heads,

People would not remark it.

Every lion comes from its den,

All the serpents bite;

Darkness hovers, earth is silent,

As their maker rests in lightland.

Earth brightens when you dawn in lightland,

When you shine as Aten of daytime;

As you dispel the dark,

As you cast your rays,

The Two Lands are in festivity.

Awake they stand on their feet,

You have roused them;

Bodies cleansed, clothed,

Their arms adore your appearance.

The entire land sets out to work,

All beasts browse on their herbs;

Trees, herbs and sprouting,

Birds fly from their nests,

Their wings greeting your ka.²

All flocks frisk on their feet,

All that fly up and alight,

They live when you dawn for them.

Ships fare north, fare south as well,

Roads lie open when you rise;

The fish in the river dart before you,

Your rays are in the midst of the sea.

Who makes seed grow in women,

Who creates people from sperm;

Who feeds the son in his mother’s womb,

Who soothes him to still his tears.

Nurse in the womb,

Giver of breath,

To nourish all that he made.

When he comes from the womb to breathe,

On the day of his birth,

You open wide his mouth,

You supply his needs.

When the chick in the eggs speaks in the shell,

You give him breath within to sustain him;

When you have made him complete,

To break out from the egg,

He comes out from the egg,

To announce his completion,

Walking on his legs he comes from it.

How many are your deeds,

Though hidden from sight,

O sole God beside whom there is none!

You made the earth as you wished, you alone,

All peoples, herds, and flocks;

All upon earth that walk on legs,

All on high that fly on wings,

The lands of Khor and Kush,

The land of Egypt.

You set every man in his place,

You supply their needs;

Everyone has his food,

His lifetime is counted.

Their tongues differ in speech,

Their characters likewise;

Their skins are distinct,

For you distinguished the peoples.

You made Hapy in dat,³

You bring him when you will,

To nourish the people,

For you made them for yourself.

Lord of all who toils for them,

Lord of all lands who shines for them,

Aten of daytime, great in glory!

All distant lands, you make them live,

You made a heavenly Hapy descend for them;

He makes waves on the mountains like the sea,

To drench their fields and their towns.

How excellent are your ways, O Lord of eternity!

A Hapy from heaven for foreign peoples,

And all lands’ creatures that walk on legs,

For Egypt the Hapy who comes from dat.

Your rays nurse all fields,

When you shine they live, they grow for you;

You made the seasons to foster all that you made,

Winter to cool them, heat that they taste you.

You made the far sky to shine therein,

To behold all that you made;

You alone, shining in your form of living Aten,

Risen, radiant, distant, near,

You made millions of forms from yourself alone,

Towns, villages, fields, the river’s course;

All eyes observe you upon them,

For you are the Aten of daytime on high. . . .

You are in my heart,

There is no other who knows you,

Only your son, Neferkheprure, Sole-one-of-Re,

Whom you have taught your ways and your might.

[Those on] earth come from your hand as you made them,

When you have dawned they live,

When you set they die;

You yourself are lifetime, one lives by you.

All eyes are on [your] beauty until you set,

All labour ceases when you rest in the west;

When you rise your stir [everyone] for the King,

Every leg is on the move since you founded the earth.

You rouse them for your son who came from your body,

The King who lives by Maat, the Lord of the Two Lands,

Neferkheprure, Sole-one-of Re,

The Son of Re who lives by Maat, the Lord of crowns,

Akhenaten, great in his lifetime;

And the great Queen whom he loves, the

Lady of the Two Lands,

Nefer-nefru-Aten Nefertiti, living forever.

¹ Justice or Rightness, which is understood as something which pervades the cosmos.

² Ka: vital force.

³ Dat: the Netherworld. Hapy is the inundating Nile which emerges from the Netherworld to nourish the Egyptians.

Doctrine 2

The Činvat Bridge: Mēnōk i Khrat

A fundamental idea in the Zoroastrian tradition as it developed in history is the judgment of the soul after death. On the fourth day after death the soul faces judgment on the Činvat Bridge, ‘The Bridge of the Requiter’, where Ahura Mazda weighs the soul’s good and evil deeds. The good enter the kingdom of everlasting joy and light, while the evil are dragged into the regions of horror, punishment and darkness. However, the ‘nethermost hell’ to which the demon Vizarsh drags the evil soul is not eternal, for at the end of time all bodies will be resurrected and joined with their souls. This final, all-encompassing purgation will affect all souls, so that all may enter into paradise.

And when the soul of the saved passes over that bridge, the breadth of the bridge appears to be one parasang broad. And the soul of the saved passes on accompanied by the blessed Srōsh. And his own good deeds come to meet him in the form of a young girl, more beautiful and fair than any girl on earth. And the soul of the saved says, ‘Who art thou, for I have never seen a young girl on earth more beautiful or fair than thee.’ In answer the form of the young girl replies, ‘I am no girl but thy own good deeds, O young man whose thoughts and words, deeds and religion were good: for when on earth thou didst see one who offered sacrifice to the demons, then didst thou sit (apart) and offer sacrifice to the gods. And when thou didst see a man do violence and rapine, afflict good men and treat them with contumely, and hoard up goods wrongfully obtained, then didst thou refrain from visiting creatures with violence and rapine of thine own; (nay rather,) thou wast considerate to good men, didst entertain them and offer them hospitality, and give alms both to the man who came from near and to him who came from afar; and thou didst amass thy wealth in righteousness. And when thou didst see one who passed a false judgment or took bribes or bore false witness, thou didst sit thee down and speak witness right and true. I am thy good thoughts, good words, and good deeds which thou didst think and say and do. . . .

But when the man who is damned dies, for three days and nights does his soul hover near his head and weeps, saying, ‘Whither shall I go and in whom shall I now take refuge?’ And during those three days and nights he sees with his eyes all the sins and wickedness that he committed on earth. On the fourth day the demon Vizarsh comes and binds the soul of the damned in most shameful wise, and despite the opposition of the blessed Srosh drags it off to the Bridge of the Requiter. Then the righteous Rashn makes clear to the soul of the damned that it is damned (indeed).

Then the demon Vizarsh seizes upon the soul of the damned, smites it and ill-treats it without pity, urged on by Wrath. And the soul of the damned cries out with a loud voice, makes moan, and in supplication makes many a piteous plea; much does he struggle though his life-breath endures no more. When all his struggling and his lamentations have proved of no avail, no help is proffered him by any of the gods nor yet by any of the demons, but the demon Vizarsh drags him off against his will into nethermost Hell.

Doctrine 3

Timaeus on the Creator and Creation

Perhaps one of the most influential texts in the West is Plato’s dialogue, The Timaeus. This text has informed much Jewish, Christian and Moslem reflection on God and the nature of the created world. Here, we print the beginning of Timaeus’ discussion of how the creator fashioned the world.

TIMAEUS: Let me tell you then why the creator made this world of generation. He was good, and the good can never have any jealousy of anything. And being free from jealousy, he desired that all things should be as like himself as they could be. This is in the truest sense the origin of creation and of the world, as we shall do well in believing on the testimony of wise men. God desired that all things should be good and nothing bad, so far as this was attainable. Wherefore also finding the whole visible sphere not at rest, but moving in an irregular and disorderly fashion, out of disorder he brought order, considering that this was in every way better than the other. Now the deeds of the best could never be or have been other than the fairest, and the creator, reflecting on the things which are by nature visible, found that no unintelligent creature taken as a whole could ever be fairer than the intelligent taken as a whole, and again that intelligence could not be present in anything which was devoid of soul. For which reason, when he was framing the universe, he put intelligence in soul, and soul in body, that he might be the creator of a work which was by nature fairest and best. On this wise, using the language of probability, we may say that the world came into being – a living creature truly endowed with soul and intelligence by the providence of God.

This being supposed, let us proceed to the next stage. In the likeness of what animal did the creator make the world? It would be an unworthy thing to liken it to any nature which exists as a part only, for nothing can be beautiful which is like any imperfect thing. But let us suppose the world to be the very image of that whole of which all other animals both individually and in their tribes are portions. For the original of the universe contains in itself all intelligible beings, just as this world comprehends us and all other visible creatures. For the deity, intending to make this world like the fairest and most perfect of intelligible beings, framed one visible animal comprehending within itself all other animals of a kindred nature. Are we right in saying that there is one world, or that they are many and infinite? There must be one only if the created copy is to accord with the original. For that which includes all other intelligible creatures cannot have a second or companion; in that case there would be need of another living being which would include both, and of which they would be parts, and the likeness would be more truly said to resemble not them, but that other which included them. In order then that the world might be solitary, like the perfect animal, the creator made not two worlds or an infinite number of them, but there is and ever will be one only-begotten and created heaven.

Now that which is created is of necessity corporeal, and also visible and tangible. And nothing is visible where there is no fire, or tangible which has no solidity, and nothing is solid without earth. Wherefore also God in the beginning of creation made the body of the universe to consist of fire and earth. But two things cannot be rightly put together without a third; there must be some bond of union between them. And the fairest bond is that which makes the most complete fusion of itself and the things which it combines, and proportion is best adapted to effect such a union. For whenever in any three numbers, whether cube or square, there is a mean, which is to the last term what the first term is to it, and again, when the mean is to the first term as the last term is to the mean – then the mean becoming first and last, and the first and last both becoming means, they will all of them of necessity come to be the same, and having become the same with one another will be all one. If the universal frame had been created a surface only and having no depth, a single mean would have sufficed to bind together itself and the other terms, but now, as the world must be solid, and solid bodies are always compacted not by one mean but by two, God placed water and air in the mean between fire and earth, and made them to have the same proportion so far as was possible – as fire is to air so is air to water, and as air is to water so is water to earth – and thus he bound and put together a visible and tangible heaven. And for these reasons, and out of such elements which are in number four, the body of the world was created, and it was harmonized by proportion, and therefore has the spirit of friendship, and having been reconciled to itself, it was indissoluble by the hand of any other than the framer.

Now the creation took up the whole of each of the four elements, for the creator compounded the world out of all the fire and all the water and all the air and all the earth, leaving no part of any of them nor any power of them outside. His intention was, in the first place, that the animal should be as far as possible a perfect whole and of perfect parts, secondly, that it should be one, leaving no remnants out of which another such world might be created, and also that it should be free from old age and unaffected by disease. Considering that if heat and cold and other powerful forces surround composite bodies and attack them from without, they decompose them before their time, and by bringing diseases and old age upon them waste away – for this cause and on these grounds he made the world one whole, having every part entire, and being therefore perfect and not liable to old age and disease. And he gave to the world the figure which was suitable and also natural. Now to the animal which was to comprehend all animals, that figure would be suitable which comprehends within itself all other figures. Wherefore he made the world in the form of a globe, round as from a lathe, having its extremes in every direction equidistant from the centre, the most perfect and the most like itself of all figures, for he considered that the like is infinitely fairer than the unlike. This he finished off, making the surface smooth all around for many reasons – in the first place, because the living being had no need of eyes when there was nothing remaining outside him to be seen, nor of ears when there was nothing to be heard, and there was no surrounding atmosphere to be breathed, nor would there have been any use of organs by the help of which he might receive his food or get rid of what he had already digested, since there was nothing which went from him or came into him, for there was nothing besides him. Of design he was created thus – his own waste providing his own food, and all that he did or suffered taking place in and by himself. For the creator conceived that a being which was self-sufficient would be far more excellent than one which lacked anything, and, as he had no need to take anything or defend himself against anyone, the creator did not think it necessary to bestow upon him hands, nor had he any need of feet, nor of the whole apparatus of walking. But the movement suited to his spherical form was assigned to him, being of all the seven that which is most appropriate to mind and intelligence, and he was made to move in the same manner and on the same spot, within his own limits revolving in a circle. All the other six motions were taken away from him, and he was made not to partake of their deviations. And as this circular movement required no feet, the universe was created without legs and without feet.

Such was the whole plan of the eternal God about the god that was to be; he made it smooth and even, having a surface in every direction equidistant from the centre, a body entire and perfect, and formed out of perfect bodies. And in the centre he put the soul, which he diffused throughout the body, making it also to be the exterior environment of it, and he made the universe a circle moving in a circle, one and solitary, yet by reason of its excellence able to converse with itself, and needing no other friendship or acquaintance. Having these purposes in view he created the world a blessed god.

Doctrine 4

Quetzalcoatl Creates Man: The Manuscript of 1558

One of the most important Mayan and Aztec deities was Quetzalcoatl, the plumed serpent, who functions as a creator, king and priest, culture-hero, and founder of cities. Much of what is known about this figure is presented in the chronicles produced by Catholic priests and Spanish administrators in New Spain in the 16th century. This manuscript describes Quetzalcoatl’s journey to Mictlan, the region of the dead, in order to search for the bones of man so that man might be recreated to inhabit the world. Miguel Leon-Portilla, one of the greatest interpreters of ancient Mesoamerican religions, indicates that narratives such as this reflect the philosophical speculation of the ancient Aztecs. Hence, Mictlantecuhtli’s imposed conditions reflect a dialectic process within the divine concerning the creation of man.

And then Quetzalcoatl went to Mictlan. He approached Mictlantecuhtli and Mictlancihuatl [Lord and Lady of the region of the dead]; at once he spoke to them:

‘I come in search of the precious bones in your possession. I have come for them.’

And Michtlantecuhtli asked of him, ‘What shall you do with them, Quetzalcoatl?’

And once again Quetzalcoatl said, The gods are anxious that someone should inhabit the earth.’

And Mictlantecuhtli replied, ‘Very well, sound my shell horn and go around my circular realm four times.’

But his shell horn had no holes. Quetzalcoatl therefore called the worms, who made the holes. And then the bees went inside the horn and it sounded.

Upon hearing it sound, Mictlantecuhtli said anew, ‘Very well, take them.’

But Mictlantecuhtli said to those in his service, ‘People of Mictlan! Gods, tell Quetzalcoatl that he must leave the bones.’

Quetzalcoatl replied, ‘Indeed not; I shall take possession of them once and for all.’

And he said to his nahualli [double], ‘Go and tell them that I shall leave them.’

And the nahualli said in a loud voice, ‘I shall leave them.’

But then he went and took the precious bones. Next to the bones of man were the bones of woman; Quetzalcoatl took them. . .

And again Mictlantecuhtli said to those in his service, ‘Gods, is Quetzalcoatl really carrying away the precious bones? Gods, go and make a pit.’

The pit having been made, Quetzalcoatl fell in it; he stumbled and was

Reviews for Sacred Texts of the World

[bfgar · Rating: 4 out of 5 stars]

Does anyone else think that the reference to "universal" in the title might be a little bit presumptuous? I will grant you: there is a lot of wisdom in the book, but its scope does not contain every religion by a longshot. Many Native American traditions are left out, as are all of the Neo-pagan ones. The Ancient Egyptian religion is touched for four stories. Akhnaton's hymn to the Aten-disk is included even though his excursion to semi-monotheism lasted a mere seventeen years, and is not even a pimple on the face of the Sphinx, especially given that the religion changed and grew for over 2,500 years -- longer than any other religion in the world -- and an undeniable influence in the creation of all three of the Western "world religions."But enough of my particular prejudices. The material that is in this book is, for the most part, golden. It very definitely shows that no religion in the world has a lock on either goodness or wisdom. More is the pity that the people who truly need to learn this will never see any of that proof. Even if these folks did see, it would still not be enough to show them that religion is a creation of the culture that gave it birth. It is something that is difficult to export because whatever "pimples" it has will become glaring in the eyes of people not accustomed to the ways that gave it birth. I think that this must be the biggest lesson learned from this collection.