Advances in Antiparasitic Therapies and Drug Delivery

Higee Chemical Reaction Engineering systematically discusses the fundamentals, principles and methods of molecular mixing and reaction process intensification. The book demonstrates in detail the implementation approach, process and effectiveness of Higee chemical reaction engineering through novel industrial case studies that help industrial technicians to select reaction intensification technology route more scientifically.

The book covers the innovation and development process of Higee chemical reaction engineering, hydrodynamics behavior in Higee reactors, equipment design principles and methods, multiphase reaction of liquid-liquid, gas-liquid, gas-solid, gas-liquid-solid and reactive crystallization process intensification principles and effectiveness. It also prospects the future development direction and hot application fields of Higee chemical reaction process intensification.

Higee Chemical Reaction Engineering is a systematic summary of several national award and key projects, such as the State Technological Innovation Award, State Science and Technology Advancement Award, National Natural Science Foundation of China, National key R&D Program of China, National ‘‘863’’ Program of China, National ‘‘973’’ Program of China and also some international cooperation.

• Handles high gravity process intensification technology
• Covers theoretical innovation in multiphase reaction intensified by high gravity
• Presents engineering application cases in chemical engineering, materials science, ocean engineering, and environmental engineering
• Provides systematic understanding of high gravity process intensification through theories and industrial applications

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Nov 21, 2023
• ISBN: 9780443151798

Book preview

Front Cover for Advances in Antiparasitic Therapies and Drug Delivery - 1st edition - by Prashant Kesharwani, Neelima Gupta

Advances in Antiparasitic Therapies and Drug Delivery

Edited by

Prashant Kesharwani

Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India

Neelima Gupta

Dr. Harisingh Gour Sagar University (A Central University), Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, India

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

List of contributors

Chapter 1. An introduction to the pathophysiology of parasitic infection

Abstract

Introduction

Parasitic infections

Conclusion

Acknowledgment

Declarations of Interest

Funding

References

Chapter 2. Traditional medicine and natural products as antiparasitic agents

Abstract

Abbreviation

Introduction

Human parasitic diseases

Alkaloids

Essential oils

Quinones

Phenolics

Terpenes

Green nanoparticles as antiparasitic agents

Conclusion

References

Chapter 3. Antiparasitic drugs: a definition and scope

Abstract

Introduction

Antiprotozoal agents

Antihelminthic agents

Ectoparasiticides

References

Chapter 4. Ectoparasitic and endoparasitic drug delivery approaches for therapy

Abstract

Introduction

Chiggers

Bed bugs

Lice

Scabies

Demodex

Controlled drug delivery systems

Hydrogel

Microspheres

Microemulsion

Nanoemulgel

Discussion and conclusion

References

Chapter 5. Microneedles in antiparasitic drug delivery applications

Abstract

Introduction

Overview of antiparasitic drugs and challenges

Discussion and conclusion

References

Chapter 6. Nanotechnology: an approach to faster diagnosis of parasitic infections

Abstract

Introduction

Ectoparasites

Helminth parasites

Protozoan parasite

Correlation of nanotechnology and parasitic-induced diseases diagnosis: current and future perspectives

Conclusion

Acknowledgment

Declarations of Interest

Funding

Author Contributions

Reference

Chapter 7. Nanomedicine for parasitic helminth infections

Abstract

Abbreviations

Introduction

A brief overview through helminth and parasitic worms

Anthelmintic/nanotechnology and nanomedicine

Conclusion

References

Chapter 8. Pathogenesis, treatments, and challenges associated with malaria and nanomedicines for antimalarial therapy

Abstract

Abbreviations

Introduction

Pathogenesis of malaria

Current treatment options for malaria

Challenges in malaria management

Nanomedicines for antimalarial therapy

Conclusion

References

Chapter 9. Repurposing antiparasitic drugs for the treatment of other diseases

Abstract

Introduction

Search methods

Antiparasitic drug; kinds of pharmacological aspect

Evidences of antiparasitic drugs in the treatment of inflammatory disease

Conclusion

References

Chapter 10. Marketed antiparasitic nanotechnology-based products and drawbacks

Abstract

Abbreviations

Introduction

Method of research

Nanotechnology-based products

Fungizone

Abelcet

AmBisome

Amphotec

Challenges of antiparasitic products based on nanotechnology

Regulatory concerns

Developmental and manufacturing cost

Scale-up issues

Conclusion

Acknowledgment

Funding

Declarations of interest

References

Chapter 11. Fighting parasites during the post-antibiotic era

Abstract

Introduction

Method of research

Antibiotic therapy of parasitic infections

Novel treatments of parasitic infections post-antibiotics

Conclusion and future perspectives

Funding

References

Chapter 12. Antimicrobial resistance and recent advancement to combat parasitic infections; development of resistance to antihelminthic/antiprotozoal and antimalarial drugs

Abstract

Antiparasitic control agents

Development of resistance in Plasmodium falciparum

Antiparasitic agents for amebiasis and other parasites

Chemotherapeutic agents against Leishmaniasis

Resistance against antiparasitic agents in other parasites

Chemotherapeutic agents against trypanosomes (Table 12.5)

The emergence of resistance toward antiparasitic agents

Selection pressure of the drug

Factors related to antiparasitic agents

Ecological and geographical factors

Drug pressure

Refugia parasites

Competition or fitness

Evading the action of the drugs

Measures to combat antiparasitic resistance

References

Chapter 13. Aptamers as an emerging concept for the management of parasitic diseases

Abstract

Introduction

SELEX technology

Increasing efficacy of the aptamers

Applications of aptamers

Aptamers targeting Plasmodium spp

Aptamers targeting Cryptosporidium parvuum

References

Chapter 14. Where do we stand? Insight on patented products and those under clinical trials

Abstract

Introduction

Search methods

Novel antiparasitic drug properties

Recent clinical trial on antiparasitics drugs

Recent FDA-approved drugs; what are their features?

Consideration of future antiparasitic drugs

Conclusion

References

Chapter 15. Challenges and opportunities in antiparasitic drug discovery and delivery

Abstract

Introduction

Discussion and conclusion

References

Chapter 16. The future of antiparasitic therapy

Abstract

Introduction

Parasites and human health

Antiparasitic drugs

Improving healthcare through antiparasitic therapy

Role of clinician in drug therapy

References

Index

Copyright

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Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

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List of contributors

Amir Hossein Abdolghaffari

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Medicinal Plants Research Center, Institute of Medicinal Plants, ACECR, Karaj, Iran

Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, and Toxicology and Diseases Group, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center (PSRC), The Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (TIPS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Diba Ahmadian

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Danial Ahmadvand

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Dorsa Amirlou

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Zahra Najafi Arab

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Sorour Ashari,     Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Mona A. Awad,     Department Chemical and Clinical Pathology, Institute of Medical Researches and Clinical Trials, National Research Centre, Cairo, Cairo Governorate, Egypt

Nazanin Behboodi,     Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

Leila Dehghani,     Department of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Anamika Dwivedi,     Department of Life Sciences, Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

Nalini Dwivedi,     Department of Life Sciences, Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

Seyed Ahmad Emami,     Department of Traditional Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Sonia Fathi-Karkan

Department of Advanced Sciences and Technologies in Medicine, School of Medicine, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran

Natural Products and Medicinal Plants Research Center, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran

Armita Mahdavi Gorabi

Research Health Center, Chamran Hospital, Tehran, Iran

Department of Tissue Engineering and Applied Cell Sciences, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Meghana Gupta,     Rama Medical College, Hospital and Research Centre, Mandhana, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

Neelima Gupta,     Dr. Harisingh Gour Sagar University (A Central University), Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, India

Varsha Gupta,     Department of Life Sciences, Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

Setareh Haghighat,     Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Advanced Sciences and Technology, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

Yasamin Hosseini

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Arsalan Jalili

Parvaz Research Ideas Supporter Institute, Tehran, Iran

Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Basic Sciences and Advanced Medical Technologies, Royan Institute, ACECR, Tehran, Iran

Tannaz Jamialahmadi,     Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Ali Jangjoo,     Surgical Oncology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Ayeh Sabbagh Kashani

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Prashant Kesharwani,     Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India

Saba Darban Khales,     Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

Danial Khayatan

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Negin Khosroabadi,     Faculty of Medicine, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

Zahra Koolivand,     Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

Naser-Aldin Lashgari

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Saeideh Momtaz

Medicinal Plants Research Center, Institute of Medicinal Plants, ACECR, Karaj, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, and Toxicology and Diseases Group, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center (PSRC), The Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (TIPS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Samira Nasirizadeh

Department of Pharmaceutics and Nanotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran

Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran

Hadis Nasoori

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Sahar Nikkhoo,     Faculty of Medicine, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

Amir Hossein Niknejad

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Jaya Prakash,     Community Health Centre, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

Nassrin Qavami,     Medicinal Plants Research Center, Institute of Medicinal Plants, ACECR, Karaj, Iran

Afshin Rahbarghazi

Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Faculty of Educational Science and Psychology, University of Mohaghegh Ardabil, Ardabil, Iran

Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran

Reza Rahbarghazi

Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran

Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran

Seyed Mehrad Razavi

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Azin Rezaeilaal

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Maryam Matbou Riahi,     Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Nazanin Momeni Roudsari

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Mahtab Roustaei

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Amirhossein Sahebkar

Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Department of Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

School of Medicine, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia

Sepideh Salehabadi,     Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Amirreza Samanian,     Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

S.I. Shalaby,     Department of Complementary Medicine, Institute of Medical Researches and Clinical Trials, National Research Centre, Cairo, Cairo Governorate, Egypt

Samy Shalaby,     Department of Reproduction and AI, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, National Research Centre, Cairo, Cairo Governorate, Egypt

Leila Mohaghegh Shalmani

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Hedieh Sadat Shamsnia

Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Shikha Singh,     Department of Life Sciences, Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

Kimia Zare

GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

School of Medicine, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences and Health Services, Yazd, Iran

Chapter 1

An introduction to the pathophysiology of parasitic infection

Seyed Mehrad Razavi¹, ², Zahra Najafi Arab¹, ², Danial Khayatan¹, ², Amir Hossein Niknejad¹, ², Yasamin Hosseini¹, ², Kimia Zare², ³, Tannaz Jamialahmadi⁴, Saeideh Momtaz², ⁵, ⁶, Amir Hossein Abdolghaffari¹, ², ⁵, ⁶ and Amirhossein Sahebkar⁴, ⁷, ⁸,    ¹Department of Toxicology & Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran,    ²GI Pharmacology Interest Group (GPIG), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran,    ³School of Medicine, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences and Health Services, Yazd, Iran,    ⁴Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran,    ⁵Medicinal Plants Research Center, Institute of Medicinal Plants, ACECR, Karaj, Iran,    ⁶Department of Toxicology and Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, and Toxicology and Diseases Group, Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center (PSRC), The Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (TIPS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran,    ⁷Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran,    ⁸Department of Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Abstract

Parasites are organisms that cause various diseases all around the world, and being infected with them can decrease the quality of life of those suffering from these diseases. While some parasites are being easily treated, others are still uncontrollable due to their different and more complex pathophysiology. The diversity of pathophysiology that occurs after parasite infection makes the diagnosis and treatment protocol of these creatures more difficult than before. In this chapter, a detailed description of the pathophysiology of the most important parasitic diseases has been provided, which may help to better understand the nature of these diseases for more accurate diagnosis and treatment.

Keywords

Parasitic infections; pathophysiology; ectoparasite; helminths; protozoan

Introduction

A parasite is an organism that is living inside or on the organs of its host and receives the nutrients in order to grow and multiply from its host. In general, parasites that are able to induce diseases in humans are divided into three subgroups: ectoparasite (insects), helminths (worms), and protozoan parasites. Further, Helminths are classified into subclasses like nematodes, trematodes, and cestodes based on their morphology (Fig. 1.1). Helminths are macroscopic and visible with naked eye in the adult stage. These parasites can live both independently and as parasites and are generally divided into three categories: platyhelminths, acanthocephalins, and nematodes [1].

Figure 1.1 Classification of parasites.

Unlike helminths, protozoa parasites are unicellular and microscopic and can live both freely and parasitically. These parasites mainly live in the intestine and blood, as well as other tissues. Intestinal parasites are transmitted through the oral-fecal route; their main sources are polluted water, contaminated food, or the contact with infected individual. Parasites that live in the blood are also transmitted through a vector such as a mosquito. These parasites are divided into four categories: Sacrodina, Mastigophora, Ciliophora, and Sporozoa [2]. The category of ectoparasites is generally referred to as parasites that need to feed on human blood for survival. These parasites can cause disease by themselves, but they can be much more dangerous as a vector.

All parasites do not cause infection, and some might even be beneficial for humans in some cases such as intestinal parasites. According to WHO and the annual budget allocated to parasitic diseases, malaria, leishmaniasis, filariasis, onchocerciasis, and schistosomiasis are among the most important parasitic infections that also have a very high prevalence. Other important parasitic diseases that have high global rampancy include ascariasis, hookworm infection, and trichuriasis. Moreover, there are parasitic infections such as Naegleria fowleri and acanthameba that have a high mortality rate [3]. Some of these parasitic infections impose a heavy cost on societies and patients and reduce the quality of life in affected individuals. Some of these infections are fatal, while many others can be easily treated, which depends on the pathophysiology of these diseases, where they act, and how they cause infections. Pathophysiology means the physiological processes that are accompanied in a disorder or after an injury. Every single of these parasites will penetrate into a specific organ of human body, which can cause serious injury and pathophysiological changes in that organ or rarely in another one. Elucidation of the exact pathophysiology of these parasitic infections helps for accurate diagnosis and treatment.

Parasitic infections

In this section, several pathophysiologies of parasitic infections have been mentioned simultaneously with their etiology and epidemiology, which are cited in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1

Malaria

A female Anopheles mosquito transmits malaria, an infectious disease arising from unicellular microorganisms of the Plasmodium group. People and animals are affected by this disease, which causes symptoms including fever, fatigue, vomiting, and headaches 10 to 15 days, following being stung by an infected mosquito. In more severe cases, the disease can lead to comas and even death, and if the patient’s initial symptoms do not treated properly, months later the disease will relapse [72]. Blood samples are typically examined under a microscope, and rapid diagnostic tests based on antigens are often used to determine the presence of this disease. It is roughly calculated that humans are infected with malaria by minimum five species of Plasmodium, including Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi, the most common of which is P. falciparum. Falciparum is the type of parasite responsible for most deaths, but other species can cause a milder form of the disease [55]. As a result of a bite from an infected Anopheles mosquito, parasites are introduced into the bloodstream known as sporozoites, traveling through the bloodstream to attack liver cells. The parasites live and multiply in the liver for 2–10 days, and each cell of the liver contains about 40,000 parasites. Infected liver cells break down and release merozoites into the bloodstream, which are an invasive form of Plasmodium. When the merozoites attack red blood cells, they produce new merozoites within 24 hours, the red blood cells are lyzed and the new merozoites imbrue the new red blood cells, and in this way, the parasitic load increases in a person [56]. As mentioned, the infection is caused by two stages, which encompass the exoerythrocytic and erythrocytic stages. Because a majority of its life span is within the liver and blood cells, this parasite is noticeably imperceptible to the immune system.

Malaria is divided into two categories: severe or uncomplicated. If symptoms such as loss of consciousness, significant weakness, convulsions, low blood pressure, breathing problems, kidney failure, and pulmonary edema occur, it will be classified in the severe category. Liver infection does not lead to malaria symptoms, while the red blood cell infection causes symptoms, which occurs while there are greater than a hundred parasites per milliliter of blood [57,73]. The concentration of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon gamma, and superoxide dismutase has a direct correlation with symptoms of the disease and an inverse relationship with IL-10. Malaria is now present in a wide strip around the equator; in parts of the Americas, many parts of Asia, and most of Africa, also in sub-Saharan Africa, 85%–90% of deaths are due to malaria. In 2018, 228 million patients were diagnosed, resulting in 405,000 deaths, of which 94% were related to sub-Saharan Africa. Children under 5 years of age have the highest risk of contracting the disease, and about 125 million enceinte women are also at risk of infection every year [74].

Leishmaniasis

Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical infection known as the disease of poverty and is a wide spectrum of clinical implications due to parasites of the Leishmania genus trypanosome. The death rate of this disease ranks second after malaria, and it is generally the third most common cause of death after malaria and schistosomiasis, which occurs more in children under 15 years of age [75]. Leishmaniasis occurs in three forms, cutaneous, mucosal-skin, and visceral, of which the visceral type is the most prevalent. The visceral type leads to an open wound at the bite site and leaves a scar, the skin type is similar to leprosy, and the mucosal skin type causes sores in the mouth and nose. This infection in humans is caused by more than 20 species of Leishmania, and its causes are poverty, malnutrition, and deforestation [60]. The disease is generally distributed via the bites of Phlebotomine sandflies, Phlebotomus, and Lutzomyia and mostly occurs in tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia, America, and southern Europe. This parasite has two main morphological forms in its life cycle, one is the flagellated extracellular promastigote in the mosquito, and the other is the nonflagellated amastigote inside the mammalian cells [61]. Infectious metacyclic promastigotes are injected by the mosquito during feeding, and these promastigotes are phagocytized by macrophages in the perforated wound and turn into amastigotes. Amastigotes grow in infected cells and influence various tissues. Mosquitoes are infected with amastigotes when they eat infected macrophages, and the parasite differentiates into a promastigote in the midgut of the mosquito, multiplies, turns into a metacyclic promastigote, and migrates to the proboscis. The survival of this parasite depends on successful joint transmission between livestock and humans or humans and mosquitoes [62,63]. 97 out of 200 countries are endemic to Leishmania, most of them distributed in forested and rainy areas in Central and South America and the deserts of West Asia and the Middle East. This disease affects 12 million people worldwide, with between 1.5 and 2 million new cases per year. In 1990, there were about 87,000 deaths due to Leishmania, which decreased to 52,000 in 2010. This disease has a high prevalence in developing countries, while it is scarcely spread in developed countries, and the city of Kabul was the biggest polluted area of cutaneous leishmaniasis worldwide, with about 67,500 cases until 2004 [76].

Filariasis

Filariasis is a parasitic disease that is a result of infection with roundworms of the Filarioidea type and is spread through blood-sucking insects including black flies and mosquitoes. These parasites exist in nature within the subtropical part of South Asia, Africa, the South Pacific Ocean, and parts of South America. Eight known filarial worms have human beings as hosts and are divided into three categories according to the part of the body they affect:

1) Lymphatic filariasis that impacts the lymph nodes and in chronic cases ends in elephantiasis syndrome.

2) Subcutaneous filariasis that occupies the layer beneath the skin and L. loa kind leads to Loa loa filariasis and Onchocerca volvulus type causes river blindness.

3) Cavity filariasis that occupies the serous cavity of the abdomen [64,65].

Human filarial nematode worms have complex lifestyle cycles that, in particular, include seven stages. After the male and female worms mate, thousands of early larval forms referred to as microfilariae are produced, which might be absorbed through the host insect during a blood meal. In this mosquito, which is the intermediate host, the microfilaria molt and turn into third or infective stage larvae. After another blood meal, these infective larvae are injected into the dermis, and after about 12 months, the larvae molt and mature in two greater levels [77]. This incurable ailment influences more than 120 million human beings worldwide, and about 1.1 billion human beings within the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, the Western Pacific, and parts of South America are susceptible to contracting this infectious disorder [78]. Most of the infected people are asymptomatic despite the presence of circulating MF or filarial antigen. As the disease progresses, lymphedema develops and lymphatic stagnation creates an environment for secondary infectious pathogens. Secondary infections are the most vital cause of disability of this disease and motive acute attacks of dermatolymphangioadenitis (ADLA). ADLA is characterized by the unexpected onset of fever, intense pain, and swelling of organs or genitals aggravates the presence of lymphedema, which aggravates ADLA and creates an everlasting cycle. In this situation, the pores and skin of the affected part of the body take on a dry, thick, and dark appearance, and wart-like protrusions containing dilated rings of lymphatic vessels are formed. Lymphatic filariasis is also associated with diverse kidney abnormalities, which include hematuria, proteinuria, nephrotic syndrome, and glomerulonephritis [79,80].

Onchocerciasis (River Blindness)

Onchocerciasis, a debilitating infection due to the filarial nematode O. volvulus, is also called river blindness. The symptoms consist of severe itching, bumps below the pores and skin, and blindness, and this disease is the second most common cause of blindness due to infection after trachoma. There’s no vaccine for this disorder, and it can be prevented by avoiding fly bites [68]. The worm of this parasite is spread through the bite of a black fly of the Simulium type, and plenty of bites are vital earlier than infection occurs. Once inside the affected person’s body, the worms create larvae that make their way to the skin; thus the following black fly infects while it bites the individual [69]. In 2017, about 21 million people have been infected with this parasitic disease, and about 1.2 million of them lost their sight. Up to 2017, about 99% of river blindness happened in Africa, and currently, this ailment is notably commonplace in 31 African international locations, Yemen, and remote areas of South America. Consistent with WHO reports in 2002, onchocerciasis no longer causes death; however, its global burden is 987,000 disability-adjusted lifestyles years, and extreme itching accounts for 60% of those instances [70]. Regarding the pathophysiology of this disorder, it can be stated that O. volvulus modulates the host’s response to the parasite and protects the parasite from the immune system reaction. Inflammatory responses triggered by microfilariae larvae death that pass through the cornea cause a decrease in visual acuity and severe cases lead to blindness [71].

Ascariasis, hookworm infection, and trichuriasis

Soil-transmitted parasitic infections are caused by nematodes. These infections such as ascariasis, trichuriasis, threadworm infection, and hookworm infection could be considered as a worldwide concern or minor local pathogens. Climate is a determinative factor in the prevalence of these infections, as the majority of soil-transmitted helminth infections occur in tropical and subtropical areas. It is estimated that Ascaris lumbricoides, the largest worm causing ascariasis, has affected about 807–1221 million individuals, while Trichuris trichiura has infected about 604–795 million people with Whipworm infection. Humans are known as their only definitive host [17]. Necator americanus, Ancylostoma duodenale, and A. ceylanicum duodenale are responsible for the most hookworm-infected individuals among men. The latest can cause infection in dogs and cats too [18]. N. americanus has a high prevalence in Southern China, Southeast Asia, the Americas, and most of Africa, while A. duodenalis known as an endemic parasite in the Mediterranean region, northern parts of India and China, as well as North Africa [81]. T. trichiura, and A. lumbricoides both have a high prevalence in tropical and subtropical regions. These infections progress as a result of both genetic and environmental factors [82]. Major infected cases of hookworm were recorded in sub-Saharan Africa. Living in a single room, living among animals, low income, lack of restroom, a habit of walking on barefoot, and insufficient amount of hand washing before each meal may increase the chance of developing hookworm infections [83].

Ascariasis is highly associated with cleanness and hygiene. Its prevalence is high in any region with insufficient sanitation. The disease can affect people of all ages, but it affects mostly children [84]. Adults are majorly infected by ingesting polluted food or water and raw vegetables, which contain embryonated (infective) eggs, while children are mostly infected by contaminated fingers after interaction with toys or other stuff that are contaminated. Then the eggs hatch in the small intestine and the larvae wander to the liver by the portal vein. It should be noted that some of the larvae will take the route to upper organs such as the heart and lungs [85]. In the lungs, larvae leave the alveoli and climb up the respiratory tract, forcing the host to cough and swallow them again. Then they will enter the small intestine for the second time, which is the place where larvae become adults [82]. Adult Ascaris can obstruct the small bowel, specifically in children and when the burden of the worm is high. At the larval stage, Ascaris can initiate allergic reactions [24]. Once they become adult worms, the female ones can crop about 200,000 eggs daily, which will be excreted and found through stool even with a naked eye [85]. Although ascariasis is