Women in Buddhist Traditions

By Karma Lekshe Tsomo

A new history of Buddhism that highlights the insights and experiences of women from diverse communities and traditions around the world

Buddhist traditions have developed over a period of twenty-five centuries in Asia, and recent decades have seen an unprecedented spread of Buddhism globally. From India to Japan, Sri Lanka to Russia, Buddhist traditions around the world have their own rich and diverse histories, cultures, religious lives, and roles for women.

Wherever Buddhism has taken root, it has interacted with indigenous cultures and existing religious traditions. These traditions have inevitably influenced the ways in which Buddhist ideas and practices have been understood and adapted. Tracing the branches and fruits of these culturally specific transmissions and adaptations is as challenging as it is fascinating.

Women in Buddhist Traditions chronicles pivotal moments in the story of Buddhist women, from the beginning of Buddhist history until today. The book highlights the unique contributions of Buddhist women from a variety of backgrounds and the strategies they have developed to challenge patriarchy in the process of creating an enlightened society.

Women in Buddhist Traditions offers a groundbreaking and insightful introduction to the lives of Buddhist women worldwide.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Open Road Integrated Media
• Release date: Dec 22, 2020
• ISBN: 9781479803453

Book preview

Cover: Women in Buddhist Traditions by Karma Lekshe Tsomo

WOMEN IN BUDDHIST TRADITIONS

WOMEN IN RELIGIONS

Series Editor: Catherine Wessinger

Women in Christian Traditions

Rebecca Moore

Women in New Religions

Laura Vance

Women in Japanese Religions

Barbara R. Ambros

Theories of Women in Religions

Catherine Wessinger

Women in Buddhist Traditions

Karma Lekshe Tsomo

Women in Buddhist Traditions

Karma Lekshe Tsomo

NEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRESS

New York

NEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRESS

New York

www.nyupress.org

© 2020 by New York University

All rights reserved

References to internet websites (URLs) were accurate at the time of writing. Neither the author nor New York University Press is responsible for URLs that may have expired or changed since the manuscript was prepared.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Karma Lekshe Tsomo, 1944– author.

Title: Women in Buddhist traditions / Karma Lekshe Tsomo.

Description: New York : New York University Press, 2020. | Series: Women in religions | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2020016535 (print) | LCCN 2020016536 (ebook) | ISBN 9781479803415 (cloth) | ISBN 9781479803422 (paperback) | ISBN 9781479803446 (ebook) | ISBN 9781479803453 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Women in Buddhism. | Buddhist women.

Classification: LCC BQ4570.W6 K343 2020 (print) | LCC BQ4570.W6 (ebook) | DDC 294.3082—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020016535

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020016536

New York University Press books are printed on acid-free paper, and their binding materials are chosen for strength and durability. We strive to use environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the greatest extent possible in publishing our books.

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CONTENTS

Note on Transliteration and Pronunciation of Names and Terms

Introduction: Why Study Women in the Buddhist Traditions?

1. Women in Early Indian Buddhism

2. Buddhist Women in South and Southeast Asia

3. Buddhist Women in East Asia

4. Buddhist Women in Inner Asia

5. Buddhist Women in the West

6. Women’s Ordination across Cultures

7. Grassroots Revolution: Buddhist Women and Social Activism

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Questions for Discussion

For Further Reading

Notes

Works Cited

Index

About the Author

NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION AND PRONUNCIATION OF NAMES AND TERMS

A discussion of women in Buddhist traditions necessarily includes words in the original languages of those traditions. The Theravāda Buddhist traditions are based on scriptures recorded in the Pāli language, whereas the Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions are based on scriptures written in Sanskrit. In this book, the standard transliterations of words in those two South Asian languages include diacritical marks to indicate pronunciation. The reader will note in the text that either Pāli or Sanskrit words are used depending on the tradition and the language of the relevant scriptural sources being discussed. The Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions in China, Tibet, Korea, Japan, and elsewhere are based on the Mahāyāna scriptures, many of which have been translated into their own languages, so Sanskrit terms are used when discussing Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions, in addition to terms in those languages. Some chapters alternately use Pāli and Sanskrit versions of the same word or name, especially when discussing the earliest sources on the life of the Buddha and his teachings, because later written texts were preserved in both these languages.

In transliterations of Pāli or Sanskrit words, a macron (a straight bar) over a vowel indicates an elongated sound. Pāli and Sanskrit words are often similar. For example, the word for a fully ordained nun in Pāli is bhikkhunī and in Sanskrit, bhikṣuṇī. The word for action is kamma in Pāli and karma in Sanskrit. Other words, such as Buddha, are the same in both Pāli and Sanskrit. The th, dh, ph, and bh sounds are aspirates, not sibulants. Theravāda, for example, is pronounced with a hard t as in town, not a dental, as in thank. The transliterated letters ś and ṣ are both close to the sh sound in English. The Sanskrit ṃ is pronounced as a nasalized n. The Sanskrit consonants ṇ and ḍ are pronounced as nasalized versions of n and d.

The transliteration of Tibetan words follows the Wylie system developed by Turrell V. Wylie in the 1950s, still commonly used today, which avoids diacritical marks. Chinese words are romanized following the Pinyin system. In romanized Japanese words, a macron over a vowel, such as ō, indicates a long vowel.

In the case of names of people, institutions, and places, the transliteration generally follows the phonetic equivalent without diacritics, or the preference of the person or institution. The exception is that diacritical marks are used in the transliterated names of persons mentioned in Buddhist scriptures. For example, Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī is the name in Sanskrit of the Buddha’s aunt and foster mother, while her name in Pāli is Mahāpajāpatī Gautamī.

Although the use of diverse languages may be a bit confusing or inconvenient, it is also a useful reminder that these Buddhist traditions have long histories and spread over a vast geographical expanse. Through these linguistic distinctions, we can appreciate the uniqueness of these traditions as well as their continuity over many centuries.

Introduction

Why Study Women in the Buddhist Traditions?

The story of women in Buddhism is complex, because the world’s Buddhist traditions and the roles of women within them are richly diverse. From India to Japan, Sri Lanka to Russia, each tradition has its unique history, culture, religious life, and cultural mores for women. Moreover, new refractions of each Asian Buddhist tradition are now developing in countries outside of Asia. It may be tempting to slip into simplistic stereotypes about Asian and non-Asian Buddhist women, but Buddhist societies span a multitude of different cultural heritages, geographical settings, and social strata, making it impossible to accurately characterize Buddhist women as a whole. In studying women in Buddhist traditions, therefore, we encounter a major challenge. Is it possible to identify patterns of Buddhist thought and behavior that influence gender roles or reinforce existing patterns of thought and behavior in such a wide spectrum of cultures and societies?

The Buddhist traditions extend over a period of twenty-five centuries, with roots in ancient Indian culture and branches extending to almost every corner of the globe. Not only did Buddhism put down roots over an extensive geographical area, but also these traditions have continued to evolve over a very long period of time, a process that is clearly in evidence throughout the world today. To complicate matters, wherever Buddhist teachings put down roots, they found themselves on soil that was already home to a multitude of indigenous cultures with their own religious traditions. These traditions inevitably influenced, and continue to influence, the ways in which Buddhist ideas and practices are understood and adapted. Tracing the branches and fruits of these culturally specific transmissions and adaptations is as fascinating as it is challenging.

With few early historical materials to work with and countless cultural variations and interpretations, getting a clear picture of women’s roles in the Buddhist traditions is not an easy task. Moreover, as in other religious traditions, women have often been neglected or erased in existing accounts. Nevertheless, after nearly three decades of research on Buddhist women by dedicated scholars in many disciplines, there is more information available today than ever before. In 1987 when, almost by accident, I began doing ethnographic research on Buddhist women, I discovered that very little had been written on the topic. The major study available was I. B. Horner, Women under Primitive Buddhism, published in 1930.

Horner’s work was remarkable for its time and is influential even today, but it surprised me that Buddhist women’s history and ideas had subsequently received so little attention. In many contemporary surveys of Buddhism, the topic of women appears to be simply an add-on. Fortunately, many new books, book chapters, and articles have appeared in the last few decades. Although certain areas of study, such as Buddhist feminist hermeneutics, have barely begun, we have far more information on women in Buddhism available today than ever before.

What can we learn from a study about women in Buddhist traditions? The task here is to provide a broad overview of women in Buddhist societies, taking examples from diverse cultures and communities, to learn what women value in the Buddhist teachings and what obstacles they face in putting those teachings into practice. Our focus will be not on specific social customs but on gaining a broad understanding of the status and self-understanding of women in societies that identify as Buddhist. The objective is not to frame a definitive picture, an impossible task, but to pique readers’ interest in Buddhist women and raise questions for further reading and research. The study of women in Buddhist cultures provides not only a window on the religious lives of women but also a vantage point from which to learn more about Buddhist philosophy, psychology, culture, and society. Despite the variety and complexity of the Buddhist traditions, we can learn a great deal about them through the lives of women.

History in the Mirror

We can begin with the hypothesis that the teachings of the Buddha (the awakened one; ca. 563–483 BCE) offered women a new outlook on life and greater independence in charting the course of their lives. The brāhmaṇa social class in India was the most prestigious of the four primary social classes of that time. Although brāhmaṇas¹ were not necessarily priests, many brāhmaṇa men were priests, and they were the scholars and teachers of the Vedic scriptures composed in Sanskrit and conveyed orally for thousands of years. The worldview conveyed by the brāhmaṇas that was prevalent alongside Buddhism during the first millennium of its development on the Indian subcontinent included the āśramas, the four stages of an ideal life for a male (student, householder, retiree, and renunciant, that is, one who renounces household life to pursue the spiritual path). The brāhmaṇa worldview included four aims of life (puruṣārthas) for a male belonging to the first three varṇas, or social classes: sensual pleasure in marriage, prosperity, moral values, and liberation.

The Buddhist traditions trace their roots to Buddha Śākyamuni, who was born Siddhārtha Gautama sometime during the fifth or sixth century BCE in a park known as Lumbini, just north of what is today the border between Nepal and India. According to the traditional narrative, when he was just seven days old, his mother Mahāmāyā passed away and he was nursed and nurtured by her sister, Mahāprajāpatī, who proved to be an extremely kind foster mother. As a scion of the Śākya clan and the designated heir of his father’s principality, Siddhārtha grew up in relative luxury, enjoying all the pleasures of palace life, including innumerable courtesans. When he was sixteen years old, he married a beautiful cousin named Yaśodharā, who was also sixteen. After many years, she gave birth to a son, Rāhula.

Around that time, Siddhārtha’s prodigious curiosity led him to venture beyond the palace walls, where he discovered sickness, old age, death, and a calm, introspective renunciant. Because of his sheltered upbringing, he had not been exposed to the ancient Indian tradition of śrāmaṇas, seekers who renounce householder life in order to engage in contemplative practices and pursue spiritual goals. After the shock of encountering suffering for the first time, he was deeply impressed by the serene countenance of this homeless wanderer. These experiences led the young prince to abandon his luxurious life, his wife, and his newborn son Rāhula in favor of the spiritual path. He spent six years learning different philosophical perspectives and engaging in strenuous religious practices, including extreme fasting and other arduous feats, but he remained unconvinced and unfulfilled, so he sat down to meditate under a tree and resolved not to arise until he had discovered the true meaning of life. After six days of intensive meditation, he awakened to the true nature of things as they are: the problematic nature of human existence, the root causes of suffering, the possibility of ending suffering, and the way to achieve that goal. Gods, humans, and the earth itself acknowledged his discoveries. The Buddha (the Awakened One) spent the remaining forty-five years of his life sharing these discoveries with audiences all over northern India. It is believed by Buddhists that Buddha Śākyamuni, who lived during the present historical era, was not the only person to become awakened; there have been countless buddhas in previous eras, and there are many yet to come.

Buddha Śākyamuni (sage of the Śākya clan) taught a path to liberation from suffering and dissatisfaction that was open to all who wished to purify the defilements of their minds. His followers included women and men of all ages, social classes, and backgrounds. Although the Buddha probably did not intend to be a social activist, the path of wisdom and compassion that he taught was quite revolutionary at the time. In place of the worship of gods and performance of rituals, which were restricted to male religious specialists of the brāhmaṇa class, he taught an ethical interpretation of the law of cause and effect and an empirical method of self-discovery that could be practiced by everyone. The Buddha verified the prevailing belief in rebirth and the causal connection between actions and their consequences during meditation under the bodhi tree just prior to his awakening. He began to share his insights on the urging of divine beings and spent forty-five years teaching throughout northern India. He taught that mental defilements such as desire, hatred, ignorance, pride, and jealousy are the causes of repeated rebirth within the cycle of existence (saṃsāra). Rebirth inevitably entails suffering and dissatisfaction, and the only way to become free of suffering is to achieve freedom from rebirth. After gaining insight into these teachings and the contemplative practices that facilitate understanding, his disciples were sent out far and wide in the four directions to spread his teachings, and thousands of men and women achieved the state of freedom from suffering and dissatisfaction. They became known as arhats, beings who are free from mental defilements and hence liberated from suffering and the bondage of rebirth in the wheel of birth and death.

Based on the insights he gained during meditation, the Buddha explained that sentient beings take different forms in saṃsāra, the wheel of repeated becoming, and there is nothing indelible, intrinsic, or enduring about these identities. Accordingly, a person may be born in a different body—male or female—in different circumstances from lifetime to lifetime. The circumstances of being reborn in a female body were thought to be more difficult and so a male rebirth was thought to be preferable. Female bodies were considered more difficult because, for example, women experience the sufferings of menstruation, childbirth, and menopause. Women are vulnerable to sexual harassment and rape and, at the time of the Buddha, were thought to require protection. At marriage, a woman had to leave her natal home and go to live with her husband’s family, so daughters were often considered a liability—another mouth to feed until their marriage, which often required a large dowry.

In the patriarchal social milieu that prevailed in northern India at that time, women faced many limitations and difficulties. Aristocratic women such as the Buddha’s stepmother Mahāprajāpatī and wife Yaśodharā were subject to many restrictions, as were women of other social classes. In this context, the Buddha’s declaration that women and men alike were capable of liberating themselves from suffering and from the cycle of rebirth was revolutionary. On a practical level, his decision to allow women to enter the monastic community (Pāli: saṅgha; Sanskrit: saṃgha) offered women an alternative to domestic life and the socially prescribed roles of wife and mother. The verses of some of the earliest Buddhist nuns, recorded in the Therīgāthā, are testimony to the spiritual achievements and freedom these awakened women experienced.

From India, the teachings of the Buddha spread in many directions and, at various points in history, became the dominant worldview in many parts of Asia. The main branches of Buddhism that developed were Theravāda and Mahāyāna. The Theravāda branch prevailed primarily in South and Southeast Asia, while the Mahāyāna became dominant in North and East Asia. Social customs and family practices vary widely in Buddhist societies, influenced by earlier cultures. Tracing the links and divergences among Buddhist beliefs, social practices, and religious institutions will be key to our understanding of attitudes toward women.

Buddhist Principles, Social Practices

In the social views disseminated by the brāhmaṇas,² a woman was expected to marry and follow the dictates of her husband—indeed, she was taught to view her husband as god (pati means god and also husband) and be totally devoted to him.³ By contrast, a Buddhist woman could decide, if she wished, to leave the household life and become a nun. If women from Buddhist families preferred to marry, they generally had more freedom than most to select their own partners. The Buddha gave advice about how to live a happy married life, but there are no religious laws that pertain to marriage in Buddhism.⁴ Marriage is a civil contract, in which religion plays little role. Monks or nuns may be invited to recite prayers or impart blessings, but marriage alliances are not sacred or sanctified by any higher power. There are no religious strictures against premarital sex or widow remarriage. Buddhists are encouraged to live by five lay precepts, which include abstaining from sexual misconduct, but these are personal choices, not divinely sanctioned obligations. The closest thing to a Buddhist legal code is the vinaya, a collection of texts that explain the precepts for monastics.

Customs regarding marriage, divorce, and property rights are culture specific. In Buddhist cultures, religious authorities generally prefer to leave family matters to the discretion of those concerned, giving counsel according to the Buddha’s teachings when it is sought, and avoiding what are deemed affairs of this world. In most Buddhist societies, clerics are celibate monks and nuns.⁵ Although they may have been previously married (like Buddha Śākyamuni himself), celibate monastics are not expected or encouraged to take part in worldly matters. They are to abide by Buddhist values including generosity, ethical conduct, patience, mindfulness, wisdom, and loving-kindness. Religious values and the exemplary conduct of well-restrained monks and nuns undoubtedly influence Buddhist decision-making and interpersonal relationships, but monastic institutions have no jurisdiction over the lives of laypeople and no influence or particular interest in marriage practices, except to impart blessings and wish everyone peace and happiness.⁶

In the Buddhist view, violence against any sentient being, including animals, is never religiously sanctioned. Although some Buddhists may condone violence in a life-or-death situation, the first precept is to abstain from taking life and is widely interpreted to mean refraining from harming any sentient being. In the family, especially, because it is the environment for the nurturing of children, violence in any form is discouraged. Instead, the Buddha taught his followers to live with loving-kindness and compassion for all in thought, word, and deed. Meditations on loving-kindness focus especially on loved ones and then extend to all living beings. Although teaching nonharm as a moral principle does not ensure that all Buddhist families are havens of domestic peace and harmony, Buddhists value nonviolence and generally try their best to live up to this ideal.

Buddhist thought and social custom are often interwoven and influenced by beliefs and practices that predate the introduction of Buddhism. Gender hierarchies that privilege men over women, especially in politics and religion, are evident in all Buddhist societies. Although according to the Buddhist understanding of karma, the natural law of cause and effect, social and economic inequalities may be the result of a person’s actions in the past, injustices cannot be justified by Buddhist teachings. The Buddha admitted seekers from all social and economic backgrounds into his community; in fact, the original Buddhist monastic community may be the earliest documented example of democratic governance.⁷ Still, socially embedded customs tend to give priority to males. These customs may reflect local practices or early Indian values, but the privileged place of males in Buddhist families, organizations, and societies may also be influenced by the privileged place of monks in Buddhist monastic institutions. In Buddhist societies even today, boys are more likely to get their parents’ blessing and encouragement to enter a monastery. Boys are encouraged to become monks, in part to create merit (good karma) for their parents, but it is rare for girls to receive similar encouragement to become nuns. Until recently at least, the higher status of monks over nuns has contributed to a general preference for boys over girls. As a result, monks have traditionally far outnumbered nuns in Buddhist societies.

Relationships between monks and nuns are prescribed in the monastic codes, influenced especially by the eight weighty rules (Pāli: garudhamma; Sanskrit: gurudharma) in the vinaya that assign monks a superior status in the monastic ordering. Although the rules for monastics do not apply to laypeople, this gender differential in the monastic community seems to have been influenced by gendered social norms and to have perpetuated certain gender-specific social practices, preconceptions, and expectations that give priority to men over women.

For example, at the time of the Buddha, monks outnumbered nuns, so the teachings that have been preserved are often directed to monks. As a first step in overcoming self-grasping, the Buddha advised his followers to visit graveyards and cremation grounds and to meditate on the nature of the human body.⁸ Through meditation, he taught, one can see things as they are and thus cut through ignorance and delusion. By understanding that all human beings are equally subject to death and decay, one can see through the illusion of a separate, independently existent self. By understanding the true impermanent nature of things, one can see that although human bodies may appear attractive on the outside, inside they are full of many disgusting substances. Insight into the true nature of the body thus helps to free one from sensual attachment and the disappointments that arise from that attachment. Because the Buddha was addressing an audience of celibate monks, he used the unpleasant qualities of the female body as an example. The Buddha presumably used the foul nature of the female body as an example to help his audience of celibate monks cut through desire and maintain their commitment to renunciation, but the teaching may have perpetuated preconceptions about the impurity of women in patriarchal culture. If the Buddha had been addressing an audience of celibate nuns, he would presumably have used the unpleasant qualities of the male body as an example. Unfortunately, out of context, the references to the disgusting