Azerbaijan & Europe: Medieval Diplomatic Relations

By Yagub Mahmudov

The book of a well known Azerbaijani historian Yagub Mahmudov “Azerbaijan and Europe” is dedicated to interesting events of history of relations between Azerbaijan and Europe. This book considered for English readership is published in Europe for the first time.
Azerbaijan gaining independence in the process of collapse of the Soviet Empire achieved vital successes in establishment of a democratic, legal and worldwide state. Though 20% of lands are under occupation and more than a million refugees in Azerbaijan it is being integrated to European and world union successfully. Azerbaijan Republic at present has become a leader state in Southern Caucasus.
Azerbaijan nation has a rich and very old history. Historical Azerbaijan lands have a suitable geographical location and from ancient times our land was the historic place where different civilizations, cultures and religions joined. This country from ancient times had a significant linking role in relations among western and eastern nations.
Azerbaijan nation is the successor of a state culture of about 5 thousand years. Powerful states established on historical lands of Azerbaijan had a wide trade and diplomatic relations with some countries of Asia and Europe since many years before our century. The primary sources approve that states of historical Azerbaijan such as Atropathena and Albania had diplomatic relations with the old Roman Empire.
As stated in the book presented to readership by Yagub Mahmudov in the Middle Ages the Azerbaijan – European relations became more broadened and entered a new stage. In the times of Great Geographical Discoveries powerful Azerbaijan states – the Akkoyunlu and Safavi Empires about a period of 300 years had deep tracks in worldwide history. Western European states for the purpose to open back front – from Asia tried to use the Akkoyunlu and Safavi Empires. The Akkoyunlu and the Safavis located in the center of the Great Silk Way, were interested in establishment of wide trade relations with European countries. With this purpose Azerbaijani leaders Uzun Hassan (1468-1478), Sultan Yagub (1578-1590), Shah Ismail I(1501-1524), Shah Tahmasib (1524-1576), the Safavi emperor Abbas the Great (1587-1629) and others established wide relations with the European states. It is an interesting fact that beginning from the mid of the XV century Azerbaijani diplomats conducted negotiations with Venice, Rome, Naples, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Russia, England, Spain, Portugal, France, the Scandinavian countries and other European countries. In the 60-70s of the XV century in the palace of the great Azerbaijani leader Uzun Hassan there was a permanent embassy of the Republic of Venice. Mother of Uzun Hassan, a well known diplomat Sara Khatun had a great role in regulation of diplomatic relations with Western countries. Friendship policy of Uzun Hassan with European countries was continued by his son Sultan Yagub, his grandson Shah Ismail I and other Safavi emperors. In the period of the Safavi emperor Shah Abbas’ reign these relations had become much broadened.
In his book the historian Yagub Mahmudov has described the real history of this interesting diplomatic relations. The scientist in his work separately explains economic-political interests of the parties being in relation expressing his own subjective idea in this respect. The author brings in such issue his right position to his readers’ notice. This is an irrefutable fact that after historical Azerbaijani lands been divided between Russia and Iran under Gulustan (1813) and Turkmenchay (1828) agreements Azerbaijan history is presented to the world as Russian and Iranian history. The history of the Akkoyunlu and the Safavi empires established by Azerbaijani-Turkish dynasties, even presented as a history of Iran. From this view point the book “Azerbaijan and Europe” published by us is of great importance to develop right idea about Azerbaijani history in European readership.
We have no doubt

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris UK
• Release date: Aug 19, 2010
• ISBN: 9781453555774

Yagub Mahmudov

Professor Yagub Mahmudov – Honored Scientist of the Azerbaijan Republic, associated member of Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences (ANAS). He is the author of more than 1000 scientific works about history, as well as scientific-publicist articles, textbooks and tutorials. He is the founder of a scientific school which is engaged in research of the relations between Azerbaijan and Europe. At present the Director of Institute of History ANAS, the head of department “Old and Middle Ages history” at Baku State University. He is MP of Azerbaijan. Rewarded with high orders of by the presidents of Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev and Ilham Aliyev.

Book preview

Yagub MAHMUDOV

AZERBAIJAN

&

EUROPE

Medieval Diplomatic

Relations

(The Period of the States Akkoyunlu and Safavi)

London-New York, 2010.

Copyright © 2010 by Yagub MAHMUDOV.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

This book was printed in the United States of America.

To order additional copies of this book, contact:

Xlibris Corporation

0-800-644-6988

www.xlibrispublishing.co.uk

[e-mail]

300680

CONTENTS

Preface or the interesting period of the history of Azerbaijan diplomacy

CHAPTER I

The degree of the problem studying; the brief

survey of the main sources

1. How was the history of the Azerbaijan diplomacy of the Akkoyunlu and Safavi epoch studied or was it studied

at all?

2. The diplomatic relations of Azerbaijan and European countries in primary sources

CHAPTER II

The historical reasons for the relations of Azerbaijan

and European countries

1. The economical basis of the diplomatic relations of Azerbaijan and European countries

2. The role of foreign political factor in expansion of

the diplomatic relations of Azerbaijan and European countries

CHAPTER III

The diplomatic relations of the Akkoyunlu state with European countries (the second half of the XV century)

1. The beginning of diplomatic relations between the Akkoyunlu state and Europe

2. Expansion of relations with European countries,

the Akkoyunlu-Ottoman war (1472-1473) and its consequences

3. The Akkoyunlu-European relations in the 70s-80s

of the XV century

CHAPTER IV

The diplomatic relations of the State of Safavis and

European countries in the beginning of the XVI century

1. Maiden diplomatic relations between the Safavis and Western Powers (till the fight of Chaldiran in 1514)

2. The diplomatic relations of Azerbaijan and the states of Western Europe after the fight of Chaldiran

CHAPTER V

The State of Safavi and international relations in the

XVI century

1. The Safavi State and International Relations (the 30-50s of the XVI century)

2. Interests were increasing to the Safavi state in Europe or Moscow company of England was strengthening in the territory of the Safavis

3. Venice makes one more effort for causing conflict of Safavis with the Ottomans

CHAPTER VI

The Safavi-European relations at the end of the XVI—

early XVII centuries

1. Diplomatic relations with Western countries during the Safavi-Ottoman war of the 1578-1590 years

2. Policy of Shah Abbas on defeating the Ottoman Empire and expansion of the relations between the Safavi State

and Western countries

3. The Great Embassy

4. António de Gouveia and William Harborn: As long as the Safavis fight against the Ottomans, the Christian world will live in peace!

5. The Safavi and the Ottoman Empires before the vertex

The last word or much left for the future

1. Who won and who lost in the war between the

Akkoyunlu, Safavi and Ottoman Empires?

2. The West studies the East, learns from the East and begins to take upper hand over it

Appendix: Maps

1. Azerbaijan XV century

2. The Azerbaijan state of Karakoyunlu (1410-1468)

3. The Azerbaijan state of Akkoyunlu (1468-1501)

4. The Azerbaijan state of Safavi (under the reign of

Shah Ismail I, 1501-1524)

5. The Azerbaijan state of Safavi (under the reign of

Shah Tahmasib I, 1524-1576)

6. The Azerbaijan state of Safavi (under the reign of

Shah Abbas I and his successors, 1587-1736)

7. Azerbaijan after the decline of the Safavi state

(Azerbaijani ruler Nadir Shah Afshar’s Empire,

1736-1747)

8. Modern Azerbaijan Republic

BIBLIOGRAPHY

NOTES

MAHMUDOV YAGUB MIKAYIL oghlu

AZERBAIJAN AND EUROPE. Medieval diplomatic relations (The Period of the States Akkoyunlu and Safavi). London-New York, 2010.

I express my sincere gratitude to the prominent medievalist, corresponding member of Academy of Sciences of Russia, Prof. Karpov S. P., who rendered invaluable support to the first edition of the monograph.

Dedicated to the memory of my first teachers—

my father Mikail Mahmud oghlu and

mother Salmi Hasan gizi who taught

me to love my homeland.

PREFACE

or

THE INTERESTING PERIOD OF THE HISTORY OF AZERBAIJAN DIPLOMACY

The Azerbaijani people created the ancient and rich history. The roots of our statehood traditions go to the deepest layers of History. Sharp turnings of Time, the bloody reigns of mighty empires, of cruel conquerors couldn’t wipe out the existence of Azerbaijan. Our ancestors left glorious history to next generations. But little was done in writing, studying and teaching of this history and in making it the unbreakable belief of next generations. Our rare manuscripts, very valuable documents, that give information about our ancient past, memoirs, diaries spread to world museums, libraries.

Today, being one of the equal in rights members of world states community our sovereign Azerbaijan writes glorious pages of the independence history. Our old traditions are reviving. We are returning to our roots. We are known. We know. Our relations are widening. Unlike the previous times, we have to write, generalize this history, have to see our shortcomings, be steady in our successes. Our people, from little ones to adults, must learn their history, must be its conscious owner and fighting soldier. The done work must leave traces…

Together with our Azerbaijan, our history science has gained its independence. Unlike the imperial historiography, that suggested a slave psychology to our people, there is an opportunity to deliver our rich past to today’s and next generations. What happiness is it, that, that opportunity is becoming reality! Moving forward depends on us, only on us! Time demands us: our glorious historical past, forbidden and labeled with panturkism, panislamism, paniranizm, cosmopolitism and many other "-zims, must be researched so, must be delivered to today’s and next generations so, that they would be armed for centuries invincible spirit of honor, unshakable conviction and spirit of national dignity, would immortalize our history honorably. Let the Azerbaijani people become the victorious Army forever and for good. Let the happiness of martyrdom for the spirit of victory, Motherland, people, honor be the ideal, sacred will and aim of each soldier of this Army…

That’s why, writers of our history, the learners and disseminators it among the people, are more charged in forming national consciousness. So, the education of the youth with history is the very important state matter. For fulfilling this honorable duty, the thorough and deep research of the past of our Motherland, the clarifying of the role of our people in the process of global historical development, the studying of mutual relations with other regions and peoples of the world, shortly saying and research of our diplomatic history are very important.

The fates of our independence and of the democratic society we are building, undoubtedly, depend on the successful foreign policy. Today, when our diplomacy is taking successful steps, the generalizing of world experience in this sphere, the analysis of modern international relations, the word of expert, who foresees the political temptations, informing about the future of the world, are needed.

On the other hand, foreign policy relies on the historical experience and traditions. The countries, that tempted to have relations with us and whom we had relations with, especially great countries have got rich foreign political experience and traditions. Like history, politics is repeated too. So, it is very important to research the history of diplomacy, to learn, generalize and draw proper conclusions on the traditional military-political tendencies, which Azerbaijan was exposed to.

The ancient industrial culture of our people, rich resources, very important strategic position, close relations with waters of the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea, that had been connecting different civilizations since ancient times were the reason of early and wide mutual relations of Azerbaijan with foreign countries. At different times, Azerbaijani states played an important role in determination of world politics.

Azerbaijan established relations almost with all countries of Europe and Asia in the Middle Ages. Still in the 60s—70s of the XV century the first constant embassy of the Western countries was opened in Tabriz—in Uzun (Tall) Hassan (Cassano) court. The eminent political stateswoman Sara Khatun was a very famous diplomat not only in the East, but also in the European countries. Azerbaijani ambassadors visited as far as the Scandinavian countries, England and Portugal and negotiated there the international problems, concerned their native country. Shortly saying, to continue this rich legacy is the duty of today’s diplomats. For being a worthy heir of past legacy, it’s important, first of all to learn it, not to forget historical traditions and experience, to make us of them . . .

The mutual relations of Azerbaijani-Turkish empires of the middle Ages, as well as the Akkoyunlu (Ak-koyunlu; Aghgoyunlu; Aggoyunlu) and the Safavi states, that surrounded not only the territories of Azerbaijan, but also the territories of neighboring countries, are the one of the important problems of our History science. But this problem was not a special object of research, as the separate scientific problem in our historiography.

The thorough and deep research of commercial and diplomatic relations of the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states with Western countries, is actual, because the history of feudalism of the Azerbaijani people and neighboring peoples, as well as peoples of the East is directly connected with the history of these countries.

The thorough research of the history of the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states, as well as the mutual relations of these states with the European countries, is very important for entire elucidating of some matters of the global history too. For, these great countries of the East had wide commercial relations with the West. The international trade ways, connecting the Middle East, China, India and the Gulf of Iran with the waters of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, the Middle Eastern countries with Russia through the passage of Derbend and the Volga-Caspian way, were passing through these countries and influencing on their economical relations. At the same time, famous commercial and trade centers, reserves of raw materials of Azerbaijan, Transcaucasia and Iran were in hands of these countries and it gave an opportunity to them to have direct and wide commercial relations with the Western countries. Azerbaijani silk, especially raw silk was playing an important role in mutual economical relations of the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states with the European countries. So, the mutual commercial relations between the European countries and the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states were in fact the continuation and a concrete stage of mutual economical relations between the Eastern and Western civilizations, beginning since the ancient times. For that reason, the research of interrelations of the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states with Western countries is of great importance for studying the mutual economical relations of European peoples in general.

Without researching the interrelations of the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states with Western countries to study the history of diplomatic relations between Europe and the East, as a scientific problem is impossible. The relations, caused by mutual economical interests, were directed to the solution of political problems, which were important both for Europe and Asia.

The main military-political problem that united two parts, on the one side Akkoyunlues and Safavis, on the other side, Western countries was the problem of Turkey. The Ottoman Empire became the mighty empire, capturing very important strategic points on the junction of the continents of Europe and Asia from the mid of the XV century and was not only an obstacle on the way of traditional trade relations, continued since centuries between the East and the West, but also a very serious military-political danger for its neighbors in both continents. Since the mid of the XV century, the struggle against the Ottoman Empire became the principal issue of the foreign policy of some European and Asian countries, as well as the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states.

The Akkoyunlu and Safavi states, pursuing active foreign policy against the Ottoman Empire, in different periods had a leading position in anti-ottoman coalition of the Asian and European countries. Western countries couldn’t resist successes of Turkish arms in Europe, so they were pursuing the policy of thrusting Turkey from behind and break the armed forces of the powerful enemy into two fronts—European and Eastern fronts. For achieving this purpose, they had wide relations with the Akkoyunlu state and later with Safavis. In turn, the Akkoyunlu and Safavi rulers did not want to be exposed to the entire military thrust of the Ottoman Empire and wanted the part of the armed forces of the Ottoman Empire to be busy in the European front constantly, so they established wide relations with Western countries too. So, the researched subject is of great importance for the entire and scientific research of the history of the Turkish problem, that was a common issue of the history of international relations of many European and Asian countries for a long time.

Apparently, the social-economical and political history of Azerbaijan and the neighboring countries during the reign of the Akkoyunlues and Safavis must be researched against the background of the process of the global historical development, shortly saying, in unity with the general process of History. Otherwise, it would be impossible to obtain objective scientific conclusions reflecting the historical reality. It should be noted, that the very important stages of the global history, such as the process of first capital collection, Great Geographical Discoveries, the beginning of colonial invasions of the European countries in the East had a deep influence on the social-economical and political history of Azerbaijan, as well as the neighboring countries, like the other Eastern countries. But it’s a pity that this important issue stayed almost beyond attention of researchers of the history of the Akkoyunlues and Safavis. Taking into consideration all these, we have researched the foreign policy of West European countries, connected with the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states from the point of view of concrete economical and political interests of different countries and have looked through these matters against the background of the process of first capital collection, the colonial plans of the nascent capital and Great Geographical Discoveries.

Concerning the chronological limits of the scientific research by us, we have looked through the complex of internal and external political factors, conditioning the reasons, the process and results of the mutual relations between the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states and the western countries.

First of all, the most important military-political factor, impeding the continuation of traditional economical relations of the feudal states, surrounding the territories of Azerbaijan and the neighboring countries and with some Western countries, that made them to establish closer relations was the Ottoman Empire. The necessity of struggle against this feudal empire, as mentioned above, became the constant factor in the foreign policy of its European and Eastern neighbors, since the mid of the XV century. This issue—the Turkish problem had stayed either a principal issue or the one of the principal issues in the international relations of the Middle Eastern countries and the European states until first signs of decay appeared in military power of the Ottoman Empire—in the end of the XV century. So, the chronological limits of our research covers the II half of the XV and the whole XVI century.

On the other hand, the Turkish problem had an active influence on many other spheres of international relations. For example, at that time, some Western countries, which were not directly exposed to the aggression of the Ottoman Empire were interfering the relations between the Ottomans and the Safavis, wanted them to be at war constantly, trying to capture sources of cheap raw materials and profitable markets in the East; if possible, to fortify their position in the territories of these states. In fact, the long-lasting wars between the Ottomans and the Akkoyunlues, later with the Safavis gave an opportunity to realize the colonial plans of the European countries about the East. Making use of the wars, between the two greatest empires of the East, western countries almost without any resistance fortified their positions in the waters of the Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Iran in the end of the XV and the XVI century. Neither the Safavi state, nor the Ottoman Empire could impede.

At the end of the XV—beginning of the XVII century, the serious change took place in the history of the Safavi-Turkey wars. The Safavi state gained brilliant victories over the Ottoman Empire after the internal reforms, as well as the military reforms, conducted by Shah Abbas. Plans of the Ottomans to occupy Transcaucasia, as well as Azerbaijan and to stay in the waters of the Caspian Sea failed absolutely.

Besides, beginning from the end of the XVI century, a change was appearing in the relations of the Ottoman Empire with the Western countries too. In other words, the Turkish problem was losing its importance in the international relations of West European countries.

When determining the last extent of the chronological limits of the research, we have taken into consideration this factor too.

Our purpose in writing this monograph was to research the interrelations of the two greatest feudal states of the East in the Middle Ages—the Azerbaijani Akkoyunlu and Safavi states with Western countries continued for roughly 150 years, to generalize and systematize the separate matters of the problem on the basis of primary sources. This research work is not only the first step taken in studying this problem entirely and comprehensively, but also is the first initiative in looking through the history of the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states against the background of some important stages and general problems of the global history, in researching of the foreign political history of the feudal monarchies mentioned above, in unity with the problems of the process of first capital collection, the beginning of colonial policy of West European countries and Great Geographical Discoveries, as well as the problems of the joint struggle against the Ottoman empire.

Taking into account the importance, actuality of the problem and that it has not been researched as a special object until now, the author draws attention to the principal matters of the mutual relations of the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states with Western countries.

While presenting this book to our readership we tried to fulfill the concrete obligations, caused by the main purpose of the research work mentioned above, on the basis of primary sources:

• to research the economical reason for the mutual relations of the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states with Western European countries;

• to elucidate the foreign political factor’s role in development of these relations, beginning from the XV century;

• to look through the reasons, that caused the close relations between the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states and the West European countries against the background of general historical development;

• to determine the place and role of the Azerbaijani Akkoyunlu state in the system of countries struggling against the Ottoman Empire in the II half of the XV century;

• to follow the procession of the diplomatic relations of the Akkoyunlu state with the Western countries, to clarify and research the activity of diplomats, ambassadors negotiated from both parties, to systematize the obtained facts and to divide the Akkoyunlu-European relations into periods;

• to elucidate the role of the Akkoyunlu state in failure of plans of the Ottoman Empire to occupy Azerbaijan and all Transcaucasia and its East policy in the second half of the XV century;

• to show the role of the Akkoyunlu state in the fate of the struggle of the European countries and peoples against the Ottoman empire;

• to enlighten the important role of the Azerbaijani Safavi state in the international relations against Turkey since the beginning of the XVI century, in connection of the expansion of Turkish conquests and the most powerful military-political period of the empire;

• to research the reasons of the widening of the geography of the mutual relations of Azerbaijan with Western countries during the reign of the Safavis in the unity with the Turkish problem, as well as the process of the first capital collection and Great Geographical Discoveries;

• to research widely the diplomatic relations of the Safavi state with West European countries in the XVI century and in the beginning of the XVII century, to generalize, systematize the obtained concrete facts and to distribute them into periods and stages;

• to unmask the policy of Western countries to weaken the Ottoman and Safavi empires, keeping them ever at war and the policy of realizing their colonial plans in the East by doing so;

• to research the Safavi rulers’ making use of the competition of Western countries for fortifying their positions in the territory of the Safavi state, according to their own foreign commercial and political interests at the time of the first capital collection;

• to enlighten the Safavi state’s impeding the Ottoman Empire to expand towards the East, failure of the plans of Ottoman sultans to occupy all Transcaucasia, as well as Azerbaijan to fortify their positions in the waters of the Caspian Sea and to conquer Iran, in the result of the Safavi-Ottoman war in the XVI century;

• to show the important role of the Safavi state in weakening the common international danger, undertaking the main thrust of the Ottoman empire, who was uniting many European, Asian and African peoples and was in its most powerful time;

• to ground the impeding of the long-lasting and wide—scaled Safavi-Ottoman wars, fierce battles between the Safavi troops and the Ottoman armed forces and the struggle of the peoples, included the Safavi empire against the Ottoman empire, to the successes of the Ottoman armed forces in the European front and causing favorable conditions for the liberation movement of the European peoples by doing so;

• to research the appearing of favorable condition for the European colonialism in the Near and Middle East, in consequence of weakening of these two great Islamic-Turkish states of the East as the result of the Safavi-Turkey wars, lasted for more than hundred years, thanks to the active interference of the Western diplomacy;

• to show, that in consequence of the Ottoman conquests, mutual relations of Azerbaijan with the waters of the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Iran and the Indian Ocean were restricted and the mutual relations with Russia through the Caspian—Volga way and the passage of Derbend revived and it played an important role in increasing tendency to Russia;

• to enlighten the positive role of the interrelations of the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states with the European countries, becoming mutually close of the European peoples with the Asian ones and widening of their cultural relations, not depending on military plans of feudal rulers;

• to show non-scientific essence of the one-sided and subjective and sometimes preconceived opinions of historians on different matters of the researched problem.

While researching all scientific matters, put forward, information of first sources, first of all, facts were based on. The facts on the applicable periods of the history of different countries were generalized while researching the foreign policy, as well as the commercial policy of Western countries at the time of the first capital collection, the social-economical results of Great Geographical Discoveries for the Western and Eastern countries, on the whole, the changes appeared in the Asian-European diplomatic and commercial relations in the period of bearing of capitalist relations in Western countries. The scientific generalizations of world historians about their own countries were taken into consideration while unmasking the colonial essence of the commercial relations of Western countries with the East, as well as with the Safavi state.

The monograph was written on the basis of critical analysis and comparison of the information of a large group of primary sources in different languages.

It should be noted, that while the internal matters of the history of the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states, their relations with the neighboring countries were widely reflected in traditional Eastern sources, as well as in Persian sources, the commercial and diplomatic relations of both states with Western European countries were almost not touched in the mentioned sources. The original of letters, written by the Akkoyunlu and Safavi rulers to Western European rulers, mainly have not reached our time. Maybe, for that reason, excluding some valuable works (for example, O.E.Efendiyev’s valuable monograph on the history of the Safavis), the relations of the Akkoyunlu and the Safavi states with the European countries were not properly reflected in researching works, written on the basis of traditional Eastern sources. Taking into account all these, and in connection with character of the problem, the author, wondered from the long-lasting tradition of the historiography of Akkoyunlues and Safavis and spent more than 30 years to collect the actual materials, which the research based on, from the sources in Western European and other languages. In connection with solution of the problem, put forward in the monograph, some sources were used for the first time in the Azerbaijan historiography.

The generalizations and scientific conclusions of V.V.Bartold, A.E.Crimsky, V.A. Gordlevsky, E.A.Tarle, I.P.Petrushevsky, V.V.Zakhoder, Z.M.Bunyadov, S.P.Karpov and other historians’ fundamental researches were taken into consideration, for the solution of different matters appeared in the researching process.

Our research was dedicated to the relations of the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states with West European countries, but sometimes we had to turn to the matters, connected with the social-economical and internal political history of these countries and made great use of the generalizations, made in the famous Russian orientalist I.P. Petrushevsky’s and well-known Azerbaijani safavist O.E.Efendiyev’s, as well as S.B.Ashurbeyli, A.A.Rahmani, S.M.Onullahi, M.K. Heydarov and other researchers’ works.

The actual materials of the works of foreign historians, who used very valuable primary resources, that were kept in the libraries, inaccessible for us, were given a large ground.

A special chapter was dedicated to the state of the researching of this problem and the summary of main sources.

The character of the research, we mean the scientific novelty of it is that the mutual relations of the Akkoyunlu and the Safavi states with Western European countries at the time of the first capital collection, the Ottoman conquests and Great Geographical Discoveries are researched as an independent scientific problem in this monograph for the first time in the Azerbaijani historiography.

Concretely:

• According to the irrefutable information of primary sources, it is proven that the basis of the mutual relations of the Azerbaijani Akkoyunlu and the Safavi states with the European countries was not the foreign political factor, but in the first place, the economical factor we mean, the interest of widening traditional commercial and trade relations of mutual importance for both sides;

• When talking about the role of the foreign military-political factor, to be more true, the role of the Ottoman invasions, in the mutual and close relations between the Western countries and the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states, not denying the role of this factor such an opinion is put forward that the countries, uniting at the anti-ottoman front are not simply the countries defending themselves from external danger, but they had their own aggressive plans too;

• It is grounded, that in addition to the fact of the intensification of the Ottoman invasions, the policy of Western countries to capture sources of cheap raw materials and profitable markets and the plans of these countries to realize first colonial invasions in the East at the time of the first capital collection, played an important role in the development of the mutual relations with the European countries;

• On the basis of the concrete information of primary sources, it is elucidated that raw silk, especially Azerbaijani silk, that was a main exportation product of the Akkoyunlu and the Safavi states was causing sharp rivalry among the Western countries; was actively influencing on the international relations; the Akkoyunlu and Safavi rulers were using this rivalry for realizing their own foreign political plans, sometimes they were successful;

• The leading role of the Akkoyunlu state in the coalition of states against the Ottoman Empire in the end of 60s and 70s of the XV century is proven; new sources show that there were wide diplomatic relations between the Akkoyunlu state and Western countries many facts on these relations are systematized and generalized, the diplomatic relations between the parties are divided into periods and each period is characterized scientifically;

• The role of the active foreign policy of the Akkoyunlu state in failure of the foreign political plans of the Ottoman empire, related the East in the II half of the XV century and its positive influence on the liberation struggle of European peoples and countries against the Ottoman Empire are grounded;

• The important and sometimes leading role of the Safavi empire in the international relations of European and Asian countries against Turkey in the most powerful period of the Ottoman Empire—in the XVI century is researched;

• For the first time, the important directions of the diplomatic relations of the Safavi state with the Western countries are widely researched, the rich concrete facts of these relations are systematized and generalized; divided into periods and stages; each period and stage are characterized separately;

• The Safavi-European relations are researched in unity with the changes in the process of historical development in connection with the first capital collection, Great Geographical Discoveries and the Ottoman conquests;

• It is proven that the commercial policy of Western countries in the East, as well as in the territories of the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states was of colonial essence. Some European countries were making use of the requests, addressed by the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states for the purpose of enjoying the economical interests of their countries and of fighting together against the common danger and were trying to fortify their positions in the territories of these countries and to realize their colonial plans;

• The policy of Western diplomacy to weaken the two mighty Turkish Empires—the Safavis and Ottomans keeping them ever at war and to capture colonies in the East is unmasked, this policy is given as the one of the first examples of the policy of Break and dominate, pursued by the European colonialists still at the time of the first capital collection;

• The leading role of the Safavi state in failure of the plans of Ottoman sultans to fortify their positions in the waters of the Caspian Sea and to occupy Transcaucasia, as well as Azerbaijan and Iran; and the fierce battles between the Safavis and Ottomans in the XVI century and in the beginning of the XVII century, are grounded;

• The leading role of the Safavi state in weakening the Ottoman Empire, who was a serious danger for the neighboring European, Asian and African peoples and countries, is clarified;

• The influence of the long-lasting Safavi-Ottoman wars and the conflicts between two fraternal Turkish states on the following history of the region and the international relations of the world wholly, is researched;

• On the basis of concrete facts the conclusion is drawn, that due to long-lasting wars against the Ottoman Empire and the negative economic results of Great Geographical Discoveries weakened the Safavi state too and the decaying period of this state began. In the result of it, the traditional commercial relations of Azerbaijan with the waters of the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Iran and the Indian Ocean were restricted, so, the commercial relations with Russia through the passage of Derbend and the Volga-Caspian way developed, the position of Russia began to fortifying in Azerbaijan and the neighboring countries;

• These wide relations, established for the purpose of realizing of home and foreign political plans of the ruling circles of the Akkoyunlu and Safavi states and West European countries, objectively and positively influenced on establishing and deepening mutual cultural relations between European and Asian peoples;

• The subjective and groundless opinions of different historians about the different matters of the researched problem are refuted;

• For the first time in the historiography of Azerbaijan, the author used in this monograph a few sources, as well as the letters of Akkoyunlu and Safavi rulers to governors of foreign countries, confidential instructions given to European diplomats, sent to the East, confidential information, sent by the West European diplomats to their native countries from the Akkoyunlu and Safavi courts, the custom