Know and Understand Jesus: The Life and Instruction of Jesus

By David Holsted

Who is Jesus? This question about the identity of Jesus is the defining question of Christianity. It is asked time and again throughout the Gospel accounts. It is asked by the Jewish crowds, by their religious leaders, by Herod Antipas, by Pontius Pilate, by John the Baptist and by Jesus' own disciples. Jesus asked His disciples, "Who do you say I am?" and the question remains relevant through all of history. In fact, it is the most important question each of us will ever ask and answer.

In order that we may answer this question, the Gospel accounts provide a large volume of information on Jesus' identity--much of which comes directly from words that Jesus spoke. What better way to learn about Jesus than to study about His life and instruction, as told by people who knew Him, lived with Him, walked with Him, and were taught by Him. The Gospel accounts and this study are centered around the question about the identity of Jesus.

My previous study of the Old Testament, Understand the Old Testament: The Story Jesus Completes. The Promise Jesus Fulfills, emphasizes how Jesus is revealed in the Old Testament. This study continues to focus on Jesus as revealed in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. This study follows a chronological path through the Gospel accounts. I love how the stories fit together and provide flow and context to enhance our understanding of the message. I believe this kind of study allows us to see a more complete picture. In this study, we get the opportunity to compare and contrast how the different Gospel accounts tell a story. It is also easier to remember what Jesus said and did when it is in the context of the story of His life. You may be surprised how well the Gospel accounts can be synchronized and placed in order. The Gospel accounts use connecting words (then, next, at that time, while, after that) that indicate chronological order. There are also time markers in the Gospel accounts. When we pay attention to these markers, we can see the story as it unfolds.

Another goal of this study is to provide information on the Jewish and Roman cultures in which the accounts take place. When we add context to our study of scripture, we gain a better understanding of its message.

Through our study of the Gospel accounts, we will see how Jesus answered many of our questions.

Who is Jesus?

How are we to live in relation with God?

How are we to live in relation with each other?

What is the Kingdom of God?

What is God's goal for us?

What did Jesus accomplish?

What is the New Covenant?

Who is the Holy Spirit?

Let's get to know Jesus more deeply. As new believers, we understand that we have invited Jesus into our lives. As we mature, we realize that we are invited to participate in the life of Christ. Let's accept His invitation.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Christian Faith Publishing, Inc.
• Release date: Oct 27, 2023
• ISBN: 9798889433231

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Know and Understand Jesus

The Life and Instruction of Jesus

David Holsted

ISBN 979-8-88943-322-4 (paperback)

ISBN 979-8-88943-323-1 (digital)

Copyright © 2023 by David Holsted

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods without the prior written permission of the publisher. For permission requests, solicit the publisher via the address below.

Christian Faith Publishing

832 Park Avenue

Meadville, PA 16335

www.christianfaithpublishing.com

Scripture taken from the Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright© 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc. ™ Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com

Printed in the United States of America

Table of Contents

Preface

New Testament—Gospels—Introduction

Chapter 1

Jesus in History / Jesus in Eternity (The Word) / Deity of Jesus

Chapter 2

Birth of Jesus / First Visits to the Temple

Chapter 3

Ministry of John the Baptist / Kingdom of God / Baptism and Temptation of Jesus

Chapter 4

First Followers / First Miracle

Chapter 5

First Passover: Temple Courts / Nicodemus / Woman at the Well / Royal Official

Chapter 6

First Tour of Galilee: Authority of Jesus / Powerful Ministry / Claims of Deity / The Twelve

Chapter 7

Sermon on the Mount / Knowing God

Chapter 8

Second Tour of Galilee: Healings / Resurrections / Anointing / Parables / Instruction

Chapter 9

Third Tour of Galilee: Sending the Twelve / Feeding Five Thousand / Walking on Water / Second Passover

Chapter 10

Final Year Begins: Ministry to Gentiles

Chapter 11

Transfiguration / Talks of Death / Healing / Disciples' Failures / Instruction on Character

Chapter 12

Festival of Tabernacles: Living Water / Light / I AM

Chapter 13

After the Festival: Woman Accused / Good Shepherd / Sending the Seventy / Good Samaritan

Chapter 14

First Tour of Perea and Hanukkah: Instruction / Healing / Parables / Deity

Chapter 15

Second Tour of Perea: Instruction / Parables / Raising Lazarus

Chapter 16

Judean Wilderness—Return to Jerusalem for Jesus' Final Passover: Instruction/Parables

Chapter 17

Passion Week—Sunday/Monday/Tuesday

Chapter 18

Passion Week—Tuesday Evening: Olivet Discourse / Plot to Kill Jesus

Chapter 19

Passion Week—Wednesday or Thursday: Last Supper / Holy Spirit

Chapter 20

Passion Week—Thursday or Friday: Gethsemane, Jewish Trial, Roman Trial

Chapter 21

Passion Week—Thursday/Friday: Crucifixion, Burial

Chapter 22

Resurrection / Appearances / Ascension

Summary: What Jesus Did

Summary: What Jesus Taught—Who He Is

Summary: What Jesus Taught—Kingdom of God

Summary: What Jesus Taught—Spiritual Matters

Appendix A1

Appendix A1: Prophecy of Jesus in the Torah

Appendix A2

Appendix A2: Prophecy of Jesus in the Prophets and Writings

Appendix B

Appendix B: Hebrew Festivals

Appendix C

Appendix C: Spiritual Accomplishments at the Cross

Appendix D

Appendix D: Introduction to Doctrine

Appendix D1

Appendix D1: Doctrine of Election / Foreknowledge / Predestination / Free Will / Sovereignty

Appendix D2

Appendix D2: Doctrine of Eternal Security

Appendix D3

Appendix D3: Doctrine of the Trinity

Appendix D4

Appendix D4: Clean and Unclean Foods / Applying Torah Instruction Today

Appendix D5

Appendix D5: Apostolic Succession and Church Tradition

Appendix D6

Appendix D6: Doctrine of Blessedness of Mary

Appendix D7

Appendix D7: Doctrine of Hell

Appendix D8

Appendix D8: Premillennial, Amillennial, Postmillennial Doctrines

Appendix E1

Appendix E1: Christianity and World Religions

Appendix E2

Appendix E2: Science and Religion / Science as Religion

Appendix E3

Appendix E3: Creation and Scripture

Charts

Indexes

Preface

Who is Jesus? This question about the identity of Jesus is the defining question of Christianity. It is asked time and again throughout the Gospels. It is asked by the Jewish crowds, by their religious leaders, by Herod Antipas, by Pontius Pilate, by John the Baptist, and by Jesus' own disciples. Jesus asked His disciples, Who do you say I am? and the question remains relevant through all of history. In fact, it is the most important question each of us will ever ask and answer.

In order that we may answer this question, the Gospel accounts provide a large volume of information on Jesus' identity—much of which comes directly from words that Jesus spoke. At the end of this study, you will find a summary of the ways Jesus described Himself. What better way to learn about Jesus than to study about His life and instruction, as told by people who knew Him, lived with Him, walked with Him, and were taught by Him. The Gospel accounts, as well as this study, are centered around the question about the identity of Jesus. You cannot take Jesus out of the Gospel story and still have the Gospel. No Jesus, no Gospel. It has been rightly said that Jesus did not come so much to preach the Gospel but that there might be a Gospel to be preached (Ravi Zacharias).

My previous study of the Old Testament, Understand the Old Testament: The Story Jesus Completes. The Promise Jesus Fulfills, emphasizes how Jesus is revealed in the Old Testament. This study continues to focus on Jesus as revealed in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Old Testament Scripture provides a foundation for a better understanding of Jesus and His instruction. Accordingly, throughout this study, we will connect the Gospel accounts to Old Testament Scripture.

While going through my Old Testament studies, I came across a chronological walk through the combined Gospel accounts called The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah by Alfred Edersheim, a book first published in the 1800s. Although it can be a bit difficult to read, I found the chronological presentation to be an effective way to study what Jesus did and what Jesus taught. This study also follows a chronological path through the Gospel accounts. I love how the stories fit together and provide flow and context to enhance our understanding of the message. I believe this kind of study allows us to see a more complete picture. In this study, we get the opportunity to compare and contrast how the different Gospel accounts tell a story. It is also easier to remember what Jesus said and did when it is in the context of the story of His life. You may be surprised how well the Gospel accounts can be synchronized and placed in order. The Gospel accounts use connecting words (then, next, at that time, while, after that) that indicate chronological order. There are also time markers in the Gospel accounts. When we pay attention to these markers, we can see the story as it unfolds.

Another goal of this study is to provide information on the Jewish and Roman cultures in which the accounts take place. Jesus dealt with both Roman and Jewish cultural issues in His instruction. Jesus used teaching methods (stories, hyperbole, metaphors, parables, repetition) that were common in Jewish culture. Jesus' instruction often assumed an understanding of Jewish scripture (our Old Testament). Jesus spoke to cultural issues that arose as Roman culture encroached on Jewish culture—issues relating to women, children, authority, taxes, etc. When we add context to our study of Scripture, we gain a better understanding of its message.

The Old Testament reveals God. God is a personal and relational God. God wants us to seek Him and to know Him personally and intimately. God wants us to trust Him. Through Old Testament Scripture, God has revealed Himself to us so that we can know Him and trust Him. Jesus came and continued God's revelation of Himself. The God of the New Testament is the same God with the same character and the same purpose as the God of the Old Testament. Jesus continued to teach Old Testament principles of faith and trust and relationship. In fact, Jesus came not only to teach Old Testament principles but also to fulfill Old Testament Scripture—that is, to fill it to its fullest meaning.

The Gospel is a continuation of the Old Testament's revelation of God. An important part of that revelation is that God is love and humanity is the object of His love. The Old Testament reveals that mankind's perfect relationship with God was lost and that God is working to restore our relationship with Him. The Old Testament points to Jesus—the Agent of God's restoration. The New Testament reveals that Jesus came to inaugurate a spiritual kingdom in which God indwells those who trust Him. Jesus' role in our restoration allowed for the indwelling of the Holy Spirit—the sign of the New Covenant—which is a critical step forward in our relationship with God. The Holy Spirit guides and protects us and enables us to know God more and more.

Through our study of the Gospel accounts, we will see how Jesus answered many of our questions.

Who is Jesus?

How are we to live in relation with God?

How are we to live in relation with each other?

What is the kingdom of God?

What is God's goal for us?

What did Jesus accomplish?

What is the New Covenant?

Who is the Holy Spirit?

Let's get to know Jesus more deeply. As new believers, we understand that we have invited Jesus into our lives. As we mature, we realize that we are invited to participate in the life of Christ. Let's accept His invitation. The purpose of…the Christian religion is not to get you into heaven but to get heaven into you (Frederick Ward Kates). Let's allow God to shape us and mold us into His likeness. Let's learn about Jesus so that we can be more like Him. Let's see Jesus as a revelation of God and His character, then let's take on that character.

Appendixes

If you like to delve deeper into issues that are raised in the Gospel accounts, then you may enjoy reading the appendixes I have added to the study.

Appendix A discusses Old Testament scripture that prophesies about Jesus through direct prophecy and through patterns.

Appendix B presents the Hebrew festivals and how they have proven to be prophetic of Jesus and His mission. The connection is amazing! Knowledge of the Hebrew festivals is also helpful in understanding Jesus' instruction and in developing a sense of the chronology of the Gospel accounts.

Appendix C discusses the spiritual accomplishments at the cross. Jesus taught that His crucifixion and resurrection was purposeful but did not teach much on what His crucifixion and resurrection would accomplish. Jesus empowered the apostles with this message, and it is important to see how connected the apostles' instruction is with Old Testament prophecy.

Appendix D discusses some of the significant doctrines within Christianity. When studying things Jesus said, inevitably, matters of doctrine come up. As I have led Bible studies, many of the questions that are asked are matters of doctrine. It is also my observation that many commentaries bury doctrine within their discussion of scripture without pointing it out as doctrine and without addressing other viewpoints. Bible translations are even affected by doctrine. In this study, I tried to separate matters of doctrine from the flow of the study. If we come to a scripture verse that raises a doctrinal issue, I try to call attention to the doctrinal issue and then write about it further in Appendix D. I realize how divisive a doctrinal debate can be, and I hesitated to include it in this study, but in the end, I believe it is important for studiers to learn to identify matters of doctrine and to recognize how doctrine is supported by scripture. I try to present the basics of doctrinal issues from their various points of view and to show how each can be supported by scripture. My hope is for us to realize that we can disagree on matters of doctrine without being disagreeable. The foundational Gospel message is much too important. We can love and respect people with differing doctrinal views without having to prove us right and them wrong. We can firmly believe in a doctrine without having to rebuke someone with a different point of view. My goal is to provide a scriptural foundation from which we can take into consideration that people view scripture differently—we can understand their differing viewpoint even if we do not agree with it. My approach in discussing the various doctrines is to provide the basics of each doctrinal viewpoint and its scriptural support and then guide you to books that explain them more thoroughly. God gave us a spirit and the ability to know Him. God gave us the ability to reason. God has not revealed everything to mankind. God has revealed enough that we can rationally and intelligently trust Him for the things we do not know. When we realize that other believers have rational, intelligent viewpoints founded in scripture and when we consider that other believers are also guided by the Holy Spirit, we can differ in doctrine and still love and respect each other.

In Appendix E, I take on the challenge of understanding the basics of the primary world religions and how they differ from Christianity. In this age of information and travel, we need to better understand where people of other religions are coming from. Being able to compare and contrast Christianity with other world religions also helps us better understand our own faith.

Appendix E also allows me to write about something I wish I had included in my first book—how scientific evidence and the Bible have converged on the creation account. In addition, I wrote on how the current scientific account compares to the biblical account on the history of humanity. I took on the challenge of addressing the Bible in the light of existing scientific knowledge because science itself is a belief system for some people.

I hope you find these discussions interesting and helpful.

Approach and Resources

Like my previous book, this book was created as part of a Bible study. I tried to format it for use as a book that can be read, as a study guide that can be used for Bible study groups, and as a commentary that can be used to enhance personal Bible reading and study.

The material for this book comes from many books, Bible translations, study Bibles, Bible concordances, and Bible commentaries. I cannot list all of the reading material that went into this, but many authors are quoted along the way. Most of the quotes of scripture come from the NIV translation since that is what most of the guys in our Bible study group use. We also look to other translations, such as NASB, ESV, KJV, NKJV, Complete Jewish Bible, Catholic Bible, Young's Literal, New Living, Amplified, and the Message. I found Alfred Edersheim's The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, David Stern's Jewish New Testament Commentary, and Tom Bradford's Torah Class particularly helpful for matters of Jewish culture and language. I also reference The Moody Bible Commentary (Moody's), The MacArthur Bible Commentary by John MacArthur (MacArthur), and The Wiersbe Bible Commentary by Warren Wiersbe (Wiersbe). Another great resource is the Blue Letter Bible app, which provides bridges to the languages of the original text—mostly Greek and Hebrew.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful for the guys that meet together weekly to encourage each other and pursue God's will for our lives—Dennis, Bob, Tom, Bill, and Mark. Thank you for your friendship, your prayers, and your contribution to this book! In addition to the group of men that join me in Bible study, I am grateful for the work of my mother, Nancy, in helping edit this book. Mom is a Bible studier and prayer warrior. I am blessed!

New Testament—Gospels—Introduction

Jesus is the most influential and significant person in history. Jesus did more to shape our world than anyone else. Jesus reminded us that every human life has dignity and worth because every person is loved and valued by God. Jesus taught that we are to love one another and show compassion for one another. Jesus taught that love for God and love for others is the spiritual foundation under which all of God's instruction is given. Jesus reminded us that God is compassionate, gracious, patient, loving, faithful, forgiving, and just. Jesus told us that our role in life is to represent that character to others. Because of Jesus, Christians were instrumental in the development of orphanages, hospitals, universities, and aid organizations like the Red Cross, Salvation Army, YMCA, Samaritan's Purse, and Compassion International. Far less noticed but far more powerful are the many believers who daily reach out to those who are in difficult times, those who have suffered loss, those who need help, those who feel left out, those with disabilities, the sick, the addicted, the prisoner. Jesus inaugurated God's spiritual kingdom on earth and told us that we are His hands and feet to serve others in that kingdom.

Jesus did not come to establish a new religion called Christianity; Jesus is the fulfillment of God's promises made through the Hebrew people. The Hebrew religion is taught in scripture called the Tenakh. Tenakh is an acronym for Law (Torah), Prophets (Nevi'im), and Writings (Ketuvim). Christians call the Tenakh the Old Testament. The Old Testament tells the story Jesus completes and declares the promise Jesus fulfills. The Old Testament tells the story of mankind's broken relationship with God and then tells us that God intends to restore that relationship. Jesus is the Agent through whom God prophesied He would redeem and restore humankind. The New Testament Gospels tell the story of Jesus. Jesus lived as we are supposed to live, loved as we are supposed to love, and faced the challenges we face. Then Jesus offered Himself as a substitutionary sacrifice for us. Through His life, death, and resurrection, Jesus became the way back to personal fellowship with God.

The Old Testament and the New Testament form the Christian Bible. The Bible is the story of God's relationship with humanity. The Bible reveals who God is, who we are, how we are to live in relationship with Him, and how we are to live in relationship with each other. The Old Testament first reveals God as Creator, with mankind created in His image. To be made in God's image is to have been given certain attributes that God has, including the capacity to reason, choose, and communicate. Each person is given a spirit and the ability to know God. We were created holy, with God's nature, character, and purpose. Given these traits, we were given the right to rule over all things on earth. God also gave us a free will, the ability to choose or reject Him, so that our love for Him would be authentic. In our pride, we used our free will to rebel against God's will (the fall), and we lost our nature of holiness. We no longer possessed God's nature but instead possessed a sinful nature. The Old Testament tells of the destructive power of our sinful nature in the stories of Cain and Abel, the flood, and the Tower of Babel. Then the Old Testament begins to tell the story of God's Plan of Redemption—God's plan to restore what was lost in the fall.

God's Plan of Redemption begins with the call of Abraham. God called Abraham away from his idolatrous family to establish God's set-apart people—the Hebrews. Because Abraham trusted God and was obedient to God's call, God promised Abraham that through Abraham's seed, God would bless all peoples on earth. This is known as the Abrahamic promise. The Old Testament then tells the stories of the patriarchs—Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. In these stories, God reiterated to Isaac and Jacob the promise He made to Abraham and designated the Line of Promise—the line of descendants through whom God's Plan of Redemption would be accomplished. Isaac was divided and separated away from Ishmael; Jacob was divided and separated away from Esau. God changed Jacob's name to Israel, and Israel moved to Egypt during a famine. While in Egypt for four hundred years, first as invited guests and then as oppressed slaves, Israel became a great nation, and Jacob's sons headed the twelve tribes of Israel. Jacob's son Judah was designated by God to continue the Line of Promise.

After four hundred years in Egypt, God called Moses to lead Israel out of bondage and servitude in Egypt. God redeemed Israel from Egypt, and then He gave the Israelites instruction on how to live as His set-apart people. This instruction, largely given through Moses, is what is known as the Mosaic covenant. The Mosaic covenant is documented in the Torah, the first five books of the Old Testament, and it includes instruction on morality, times of rest and redemption (Sabbaths), clean and unclean conditions (ritual purity), sacrificial offerings, a priesthood, a place of worship (the Tabernacle), and Hebrew festivals. In response to God's gift of redemption, Israel was expected to honor God through obedience to His moral, ritual, and cultural instruction. Under the Mosaic covenant, if Israel followed God's instruction, Israel would be blessed, and through Israel, all nations would be blessed.

The Old Testament documents Israel's history as God's covenant people and Israel's eventual rebellion against God and His covenant instruction. Israel was to be a servant for God that would facilitate God's blessing to all nations. They were to represent God to mankind by being His priesthood, His intermediaries, and by taking on the missionary task and the moral responsibility of representing God to the world. After Israel's failure through continued rebellion, the Old Testament prophets revealed that God Himself would accomplish the task through a true Servant. According to the prophets, this Servant, also known as the Messiah, would accomplish His mission through justice, righteousness, instruction, suffering, death, resurrection, and vindication—ultimately bringing God's redemption to the ends of the earth. Thus, through the Servant, Abraham's seed, all nations would be blessed.

The Old Testament not only includes direct prophecy of the Messiah but also is full of patterns that foreshadow Jesus and what Jesus accomplished. For instance, God's Plan of Redemption for mankind was foreshadowed in Israel's exodus from Egypt, an exodus that achieved deliverance from an external evil and the suffering and injustice it caused.

The New Testament does, in fact, affirm the death and resurrection of Jesus as a cosmic victory over all authorities and powers ‘in heaven and on earth'—in other words, over the totality of evil forces which bind and enslave human beings, corrupt and distort human life, and warp, pollute and frustrate the very creation itself. That victory is an essential part of the biblical Good News. And applying that victory to every dimension of human life on earth is the task of Christian mission. (Christopher Wright, Knowing Jesus through the Old Testament).

Jesus is a clear revelation of God's character. God desires that we know Him so that we can reflect His character to others. In Jesus, we see the humility, sacrificial love, and faithful commitment to God's will that God desires from each of us. In Jesus, we see the importance of time building our relationship with God. In Jesus, we see God's character of compassion and how we should be caring for others. In Jesus, we see God's desire for justice—how we should deal fairly with one another and assist those less fortunate than we are. Our mission is to study the life and instruction of Jesus in order to better know God, understand our relationship with Him, and better represent His character to others.

In preparation for our study of the Gospels, let's take a look at the context of the New Testament—historically, politically, culturally, religiously, and spiritually.

Historically, Israel, the descendants of Abraham through Jacob, became a great nation upon its exodus from Egypt under Moses and its conquering of the Promised Land under Joshua in about 1400 BC. Although a great nation, Israel first existed as a federation of tribes, each with its own patriarchal leadership, functioning with God as its King and Levitical priests as God's human representatives to serve the people in instruction and ritual observances. Later, in about 1050 BC, God allowed Israel to form a kingdom. Under Kings Saul, David, and Solomon, although tribal divisions continued, Israel existed as a united kingdom. Upon Solomon's death, about 930 BC, the kingdom split into two—the northern kingdom of Ephraim-Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah. Each kingdom eventually spiraled downward into apostasy, insincere worship practices, and moral and ethical unfaithfulness—all viewed by God as rebellion against Him.

In God's Torah instruction, God warned Israel of the consequences of rebellion—consequences designed to drive Israel back into proper relationship with Him—consequences including drought, famine, afflictions, plague, invasion by enemies, destruction, defeat, and exile (Lev. 26). In 722 BC, after two hundred years of rebellion and apostacy, the northern kingdom of Ephraim-Israel was defeated by Assyria. Many of its citizens were exiled throughout the Assyrian Empire, and the region (called Samaria after its capital city) was repopulated with people from other nations that Assyria conquered. This mix of part-Hebrew, part-Gentile people are the Samaritans we read about in the New Testament. The southern kingdom of Judah went through cycles of allegiance to God and then rebellion against Him. Many of its kings led the people to faithful dependence on God and adherence to His instruction. In the end, though, the faithfulness of the people spiraled downward, and in 586 BC, the southern kingdom of Judah was defeated by Babylonia. Many of Judah's citizens were exiled to Babylonia but were not assimilated into Babylonian society. While in Babylonia, the exiles from Judah began being known as Judahites, a term which Bible translators now translate as Jews. When Persia conquered Babylonia in 539 BC, Persian King Cyrus not only allowed the Jews to return to their homeland but also ordered and helped finance the reconstruction of the temple.

Persia controlled the Promised Land until it fell to Alexander the Great and Greece in 330 BC. Upon Alexander's death in 323 BC, the Greek Empire was divided among four generals. The Promised Land was initially under the control of the Ptolemies, who ruled out of Egypt and were mostly tolerant of Jewish religious practices. Later, in 198 BC, the Ptolemies were defeated by the Seleucids, who ruled out of Syria. Initially, the Seleucids were tolerant of the Jewish religion, but the Seleucids began to severely oppress the Jews under Antiochus Epiphanes beginning in 175 BC. Antiochus set out to radically install Greek culture (Hellenize) among the Jewish people and to eradicate the Jewish religion. He attempted to destroy all copies of the Torah, prohibited circumcision and other Jewish practices, required offerings to the Greek god Zeus, erected a statue of Zeus in the temple, and sacrificed a pig on the temple altar. A successful Jewish revolt was led by Mattathias and his Jewish family, and his oldest son, Judas Maccabeus, began a period of Jewish self-rule in 166 BC. Over the next eighty years, the Maccabees and their successors expanded Jewish rule to nearly the size of the kingdom of Israel under Kings David and Solomon. But during that expansion, upon the death of Mattathias' last son, Simon, in 135 BC, the Hasmonean dynasty they founded soon evolved into an aristocratic, Hellenistic regime sometimes hard to distinguish from the previous Seleucid Empire. From 135 BC to 76 BC, the Promised Land was often engulfed in war and civil war. The aristocratic Sadducees were favored by the Hasmonean kings John Hyrcanus I, Aristobulus, and Alexander Jannaeus. Alexander even had eight hundred Pharisees crucified in a single day because of their opposition. Upon Alexander's death, his wife, Salome Alexandra, became queen for about ten years. Salome, from a Pharisaic family, pacified the Sadducees but reigned in partnership with the Pharisees. The Romans seized control of the Promised Land in 63 BC, when General Pompey conquered the land. Pompey had been asked to intervene in a conflict between Salome's two sons after her death. Pompey used the opportunity to shore up Roman defenses on its eastern border with Parthia. Pompey's conquest of Jerusalem ended Jewish independence and incorporated the province of Judea into the Roman Republic.

Like the Ptolemies, the Romans were generally tolerant of Jewish religious practices. As early as 161 BC, Judea and the Romans had formed an alliance that helped hold the Seleucids (Syrians) at bay. Around 48 BC, during the Great Roman Civil War, Julius Caesar defeated Pompey, and Pompey fled to Egypt where he was killed on the order of the Egyptian leader Ptolemy XIII. Caesar pursued Pompey to Egypt and became embroiled in an Egyptian civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, Cleopatra VII. Caesar's small army was besieged by the larger Egyptian army in Alexandria. Herod the Great's father, Antipater, may have helped save Julius Caesar's life by facilitating provisions for Caesar's troops and helping additional troops get through to save Caesar. Caesar conferred extraordinary privileges on Judea, which was freed from Roman tribute, immunized from taxation, and exempted from service in the Roman military (because of dietary and Sabbath restrictions). The Jews used the alliance to win diplomatic recognition and special recognition for Jews living throughout the Mediterranean. Historians estimate the early first-century Roman Empire to have a population of about seventy million, about seven million of which were Jews, and the empire extended from the English Channel to Mesopotamia (today Iraq). Until Tiberius succeeded Augustus (Octavian) in AD 14, Rome's policies could even be viewed as pro-Jewish.

What the Romans would not tolerate was political challenge or conflict. An example of this that is very relevant to the life and times of Jesus is found in about AD 6—about the time Joseph and Mary took Jesus to the temple as a boy. A man called Judas the Galilean, whom Josephus says founded the Zealots, led a rebellion against Rome at Sepphoris, in protest of a census and new Roman taxes (see Acts 5:37). Sepphoris was Herod Antipas' capital city in Galilee that was only four miles from Nazareth. During Jesus' lifetime, Sepphoris was second in importance only to Jerusalem in all of the Holy Land. According to tradition, Judas and two thousand of his followers were executed on crosses that were left standing throughout the Galilean countryside because the Romans wanted to send a message. Jesus, being from Nazareth, likely would have seen these crosses, and His skills as a carpenter and builder may very well have contributed to the rebuilding of Sepphoris after its destruction by the Romans. During Jesus' lifetime, Sepphoris was ultimately rebuilt into a gleaming Greco-Roman city, complete with colonnaded streets, a forum, a palace, a bath, a gymnasium, and luxurious villas, all constructed with white limestone and colored marble. Jesus was well aware of Roman society and Roman intolerance toward political rebellion.

For five centuries before Julius Caesar, Rome had been ruled as a republic with power vested in a senate. In 60 BC, the First Triumvirate formed a political alliance of three officials (Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus) and assumed control of the Roman Republic. In 49 BC, after great successes in battle, Julius Caesar was ordered to step down as general but instead returned to Italy with his army and seized Rome. After a period of civil war, Caesar also seized control of the republic, leaving a powerless senate in place for optics. Rome essentially became an empire. In 44 BC, Julius Caesar was assassinated by several Roman senators, and after a civil war, power was shared among Caesar's nephew and adopted son Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus (together known as the Second Triumvirate). After another civil war, in 27 BC, power was consolidated under Octavian, who took the name Caesar Augustus. Rome officially became an empire.

Under Augustus, Romans, for the most part, experienced a period of peace and prosperity. The Romans offered peace and security to its conquered provinces and peoples, who mostly cooperated. Rome's Greek (Hellenistic) culture was accepted in most of the empire. To the Romans, a new age was dawning under Augustus. Roman poet Virgil declared a new order for the ages and that a new human race is descending from the heights of heaven due to the birth of a child, with whom the iron age of humanity will end and the golden age begin. These words were written about Rome under Augustus. Augustus deified Julius Caesar and deified himself. He also proclaimed himself pontifex maximus, Rome's chief priest. In effect, Augustus was now king, high priest, son of god, and a god himself. How ironic is that? In a matter of years, the true King, High Priest, Son of God, and God Himself would be born to inaugurate God's kingdom on earth.

As a side note, you'll hear the Promised Land referred to as Palestine, and you'll see it referenced that way in maps and Bible commentaries. For our purposes, I will use the term Promised Land or Holy Lands because the term Palestine was a name given to the territory in AD 135 after the second major Jewish rebellion against Rome (the first rebellion culminating in the destruction of the temple in AD 70). Roman Emperor Hadrius, tired of rebellion, ordered all Jews out of Jerusalem and renamed the territory after one of the Jews' historical archenemies, the Philistines. Palestine is Greek for Philistine.

Politically, during the New Testament period, the Roman Empire controlled the Promised Land. At the time of Jesus' birth, the entire Promised Land was under the authority of Herod the Great, who was a vassal king to the Roman Emperor, Caesar Augustus (Octavian). King Herod was an Idumean, and Idumea is Greek for Edom. Edom is an alternate name for Esau, Jacob's (Israel's) twin brother who wrestled with Jacob in Rebekah's womb (Gen. 25). The Edomites originally occupied a territory to the southeast of the Promised Land (southeast of the Dead Sea), but Nabatean Arabs pushed them out of that territory about the same time that Babylonia exiled the Kingdom of Judah, and the Edomites made their new homes in southern Judah. The Greeks conquered the Edomites after they conquered Judea, and their territory became known as Idumea, Greek for Edom. During the Maccabean wars, the Idumeans were subjugated by the Jews and forced to convert to Judaism. Herod the Great's father, Antipater, was a convert to Judaism and a high-ranked official under Hasmonean Hyrcanus II. Herod was appointed by his father to serve as governor of Galilee and was named as tetrarch by Roman leader, Mark Antony. In 41 BC, aided by the Parthians (an eastern enemy of Rome corresponding roughly to modern Iran, Iraq, and Afghanistan), Hyrcanus' nephew, Antigonus, took the throne from his uncle and established an alliance with the Parthians. Herod fled to Rome. Herod pled for the Romans to restore him to power, and he was appointed as king of Judea by the Roman Senate. Herod went back to Judea and overthrew the Hasmonean Antigonus in 37 BC, reestablishing Roman authority over Judea. It took over thirty years for the Romans to put down all signs of rebellion in Judea, a period so violent and with so many men, women, and children being killed by the Romans that Herod asked a Roman general, Would the Romans deprive the city of all its inhabitants and possessions and leave me a king of the wilderness? Herod would prove to be loyal to Rome, and while Herod publicly identified himself as a Jew, his lifestyle and reign of violence and deceit were strong indicators that it was only in pretense.

Upon King Herod's death in 4 BC, his vassal kingdom was segregated into several Roman districts—Judea, Samaria, Galilee, Idumea, Perea, and the Decapolis—and authority was divided among three of Herod's descendants—Herod Philip ruled north and east of the Sea of Galilee, Herod Antipas ruled in Galilee and Perea, and Archelaus ruled in Samaria, Judea, and Idumea. Herod Philip's reign in the north and east of Galilee and Herod Antipas' reign in Galilee and Perea lasted throughout Jesus' time on earth, until AD 34 and AD 39 respectively. After a short reign of violence, Archelaus was deposed in AD 6, and rule over Samaria, Judea, and Idumea was passed on to Roman governors. Roman governors held authority over Samaria, Judea, and Idumea during Jesus' teen and adult years on earth. From AD 37 to AD 44, after Jesus was resurrected and ascended to heaven, King Herod Agrippa reunited the vassal reign over the Promised Land, and after AD 44, rule was passed back to Roman governors.

King Herod (the Great) was a vassal king under Roman Emperor Caesar Augustus (31 BC–AD 14) as the New Testament begins. He is the king that ordered the murder of all Hebrew boys under the age of two in and around Bethlehem. When Jesus' family returned to live in Nazareth and during Jesus' ministry, Herod Antipas ruled there. Nazareth was in Galilee. Herod Antipas is the tetrarch that ordered the imprisonment and eventual beheading of John the Baptist and is to whom Pontius Pilate sent Jesus before the crucifixion. In Luke 13:32, Jesus referred to Herod Antipas as that fox, meaning a person of low status—in this case a worthless, degenerate ruler.

During the time of Jesus' public ministry, Caesar Augustus had been succeeded by Tiberius Caesar (AD 14–37), and Judea was ruled by a Roman governor, Pontius Pilate (AD 26–36). Tiberius had a largely successful reign, especially considering he followed the then deified Augustus, but during the time of Jesus' ministry, Tiberius' reign was clouded by political uncertainty. Under Tiberius, around AD 19, the Roman Senate expelled all Jews from Rome for reasons that are not clear in historical accounts. At a minimum, this indicates that Jews no longer held a special status. Around AD 26, Tiberius moved to the Island of Capris and never returned to Rome. Power in Rome was then largely in the hands of the head of the praetorian guard, Sejanus. Sejanus became embroiled in a power struggle with Tiberius' adoptive daughter-in-law, Agrippina, who was mother to a potential successor to Tiberius. At first, Agrippina was declared a public enemy and was banished to an island off the coast of Italy, but later, around AD 31, Sejanus was accused of treason and executed. Sejanus was likely the person who had recommended Pilate for his position in Judea, so Pilate must have felt his status with Rome was at risk.

Pilate's primary residence was in Caesarea on the Mediterranean Coast, but when he went to Jerusalem, he stayed at a magnificent palace built by Herod the Great, located on the west side of Jerusalem (the temple was on the east side). It was in this palace that the Roman trial of Jesus took place. Pilate was as brutal and tyrannical as Herod and Archelaus had been. In Luke 13:1, people told Jesus about Galileans who had been killed while they were at worship, and their blood was mixed with the blood of their sacrifices on the altar. Pilate secured (stole) money from the temple to build an aqueduct, and when several Jews protested, Pilate had them executed. Eventually, after Jesus' death, Tiberius fired Pilate because of all of the unrest caused by Pilate's executions and brutality. Philo, a Jewish philosopher, said that Pilate's rule was marked by bribery, insults, robberies, supreme cruelty, executions without a trial, and a furious, vindictive temper.

Culturally, in the third century BC, the Greeks began a process known as Hellenization, so named because Greeks, or Hellenes, were the descendants of Hellen. Hellenization referred to the carrying of the Greek language, thought, and culture throughout the Greek and then Roman Empires—west into Europe, south into northern Africa, and east to India. The Greeks encouraged intermarriage with foreign woman to blur the barriers between conquered peoples. The Greeks set up schools and built gymnasiums as cultural centers. Within the Roman Empire, most of the conquered peoples largely cooperated with Hellenization. The largest exception was the Jewish people in the Holy Land. The Jewish people believed in one God, not the plethora of Greek gods—this actually led to the Jews being called atheists by the Romans. The Jewish people insisted on their own unique culture and temple that their one God had prescribed. Jewish rabbis kept this aversion alive by reminding the people of the results of Hellenization under the Seleucid's and Antiochus Epiphanes more than a century earlier.

The most notable aspect of Hellenization was the spread of the Greek language, which became the language of trade and culture throughout the empire—a common tongue necessary for travelers and business associates. Other aspects of Greek culture included philosophy, myths and religion, technology, and art. Hellenization led to the translation of the Hebrew scripture into Greek around 250 BC—a translation known as the Septuagint or LXX. This Greek translation of scripture is often quoted in the New Testament. Hellenization ultimately facilitated the spread of the Gospel. A common language, reduced barriers to travel, and a Hellenized Diaspora (Jewish synagogues) permitted Paul and other believers to travel and teach throughout the Roman Empire. As a result of Hellenization, much of the New Testament was written in Greek.

Language impacts how we read and understand scripture. Jesus likely spoke in Hebrew (the language in which most of the Old Testament was written) and Aramaic (Aramaic is the original language for small portions of the Old Testament, and quotes from Jesus in Aramaic are found in Mark's Gospel). The earliest existing Gospel manuscripts are written in Greek—meaning either that the manuscripts were translated from Hebrew and Aramaic to Greek or that their authors translated into Greek as they wrote. According to an early church leader, Irenaeus (AD 130––202),

Matthew also issued a written Gospel among the Hebrews in their own dialect, while Peter and Paul were preaching at Rome and laying the foundation of the Church. After their departure, Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, did also hand down to us in writing what had been preached by Peter. Luke also, the companion of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel preached by him. Afterwards, John, the disciple of the Lord, who also had leaned upon his breast, did himself publish a Gospel during his residence in Ephesus in Asia.

Irenaeus was a disciple of Polycarp (AD 69–155), who was in turn an associate of the Apostle John. Irenaeus also referenced writings of Papias (AD 60–163), an elder of Hierapolis and a hearer of [the Apostle] John and associate of Polycarp. Papias' lost writings are called Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord, and excerpts survive in the works of Irenaeus and of Eusebius of Caesarea (AD 260–340). Although modern theologians develop their own theories about how and when the Gospels were written, this is strong evidence that the Gospel of Matthew was written in Hebrew or Aramaic and then translated to Greek and that Matthew was written and circulated while Paul and Peter were in Rome (written about AD 60–65).

Aramaic was the language of Babylonia during the period of the exile and is a close cousin to Hebrew. There are words in Hebrew and Aramaic that do not translate directly into a Greek word, just as there are words in Greek that do not translate directly into an English word. Recall that the first English translations of the Bible went from Hebrew to Greek (LXX), Greek to Latin (Vulgate), and Latin to English (KJV). Those early translations often influence later translations. Doctrine also influences translation. An example of a Greek word without an English equivalent is pisteuo, which is often translated as believe. It does not mean belief as in intellectual assent; its meaning is closer to trust. It means adhere to, cling to, trust in, have faith in, rely on, and give oneself up to. There is a difference between a belief and a conviction. A belief can become something you merely hold; a conviction is that which holds you (Ravi Zacharias). Pisteuo means something more like conviction. Another example is Hebrew shalom, which has no Greek or English equivalent and is usually translated as peace. It goes beyond a mere lack of conflict; it means an overall sense of spiritual well-being, godliness, prosperity, and contentment. In this study, we will often refer to the Hebrew words that writers were likely translating as they wrote in Greek. This will allow us to see more depth in the meaning of several verses.

Roman culture was very advanced in education, architecture, and engineering. This period saw extensive building programs throughout the Roman Empire, especially in the city of Rome. Elaborate buildings and structures were constructed. Water and sewer systems were designed and built. A system of roads was built throughout the empire for trade and military supply and advancement.

The culture of the Romans was often addressed by Jesus in His teaching. Herodians, followers of Herod the Great and his sons, professed Jewish faith but largely adopted Roman culture. Roman culture was one of status—a hierarchal way of ordering life. Royalty and aristocrats were valued and favored over common tradesmen, who were valued and favored over slaves. At the top of the hierarchy were the six hundred or so senators who ran things under Caesar. Then came a class known as equestrians, those with significant wealth. Then came decurions, wealthy citizens who occupied government offices and priesthoods. Underneath these aristocrats were the ninety-eight percent of the people who were nobodies. But even within nobodies were classes. Some were citizens. Others were freedmen. Others were slaves. Children were at the bottom of the cultural ladder, slightly below nonsocietal women and slaves. Unwanted children (the disabled, girls in general, the poor) were sometimes simply left to die—often in a dump or a dung hill—a practice called exposure. Most died, some were rescued—generally to be raised as slaves. Contrast this with Jesus' view on the value of every human life—loved, made in the image of God—and especially with His teaching on children, Whoever takes the lowly position of this child is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven. And whoever welcomes one such child in my name welcomes me (Matt. 18:4–5). In Roman culture, women without societal status were viewed as property whose primary value was in bearing children—male children. These women were expected to remain home, out of sight, generally without education. By contrast, Jesus took on female disciples, and many women were key supporters of His ministry and played key roles in the development of the early church. Under Roman law, slaves were considered property, not people. Roman masters literally held the power of life and death over them. By contrast, historically, Hebrew slaves were more like adopted members of the family. Jesus washed His disciples' feet and taught that we all must become servants/slaves, and Paul wrote, In Christ Jesus you are all children of God through faith… There is neither Jew nor Greek, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus (Gal. 3:26–28).

In order to better understand Jesus and the Bible, we also must distinguish Western culture (that of the Romans and Greeks and today that of Europe and the Americas) from Eastern culture (Middle Eastern and Far Eastern, including the region where the Gospel accounts take place). Three important aspects of Eastern culture that differ from Western culture and impact our understanding of the Bible are societies based on honor and shame, analogic thinking, and teaching through stories and anecdotes. A good resource to begin to understand the Bible in the context of Eastern versus Western culture is Seeing Jesus from the East by Ravi Zacharias and Abdu Murray.

Eastern societies are based on a status of honor or shame as opposed to Western cultures built on innocence or guilt. In Eastern culture, a person lives in a status of honor until they or someone else brings them shame. In Western culture, a person is innocent until proven guilty. The West stresses the importance of individualism, while the East stresses the importance of the collective or communal group, especially that of the family, over that of the individual. In Eastern society, while there is a concept of right and wrong, it is not absolute and it is not the driving force. Members of society are taught to act honorably, not rightly. Right and wrong are predicated on cultural rules, customs, and traditions about how to avoid shame and maintain honor. Choosing what one believes can be just as immoral as choosing what one does. If one does not believe or act honorably, shame defines them as a person, having been bad rather than having done something bad—and shame can define their family, their community, their nation, their religion, etc. Public shame is a culturally subjective method of moral enforcement. If one is shamed, he or she (or members of the family or group) will do whatever it takes to rid themselves of the shame—they will lie, and it is not wrong—they will commit acts of violence and it is not wrong. In Western society, we operate on a system of laws that establish right and wrong for the individual, and a system of justice is used to determine whether wrong has been done (by the individual) and, if so, what punishment is justified. When we do wrong, we feel personal guilt more than communal shame. Judicial guilt and personal guilt define the character and status of a person as a member of Western society. Within an Eastern society, honor and shame, how one is perceived, defines the character and status (value, dignity, integrity, and identity) of a person and his or her communal group. Recognizing the honor-shame backdrop of Jesus' Eastern culture elucidates what was happening in biblical scenes of people questioning Jesus and why Jesus responded as he did… When someone questioned Jesus privately, it was usually for the purpose of truly learning [John 3:1–21]… When Jesus was questioned with crowds nearby, it is a good bet that his questioners hoped to publicly shame him [Matt. 22:15–46]… Jesus played the honor game like a master, flipping the attempts to publicly shame him onto his challengers (Abdu Murray). We will try to point out Gospel accounts where shame and honor played an important role in the narrative or instruction. The Bible richly speaks to both honor-shame and innocence-guilt cultures. Its stories speak to Eastern minds by paying more than mere lip service to the power of communal honor and shame. It appeals to the Western mind by addressing the inner conscience that helps us see objective right and wrong (Abdu Murray).

Eastern and Western styles of thinking differ. Eastern minds tend to follow analogic thinking as opposed to rational and logical thinking in the West. Neither is better nor more advanced; they are simply different styles of thinking. Analogic thought is based on established patterns and models. It searches for and recognizes common foundational truths based on past observation and experience. It relies on relationships and connections for similar things. Analogic thinking relies on prior knowledge and experience to ask which pattern? rather than why?—which pattern best fits a particular circumstance or instruction to make its meaning clear. Parables incorporate this particular kind of thinking. The Old Testament is loaded with people, institutions, and events that form patterns for Jesus and other New Testament revelation—perfect for analogic thinking. Rational and logical thought is imbedded in science. It relies on inductive reasoning (conclusions about truth drawn from information and life experiences), deductive reasoning (logical conclusions drawn from facts), cause and effect, and systemized thought. Rational and logical thinking asks why? Analogic thinking incorporates the spiritual with the physical, while rational and logical thinking is man-centered, focused on things that can be observed and tested. Western thought is based on human discovery, human philosophy, science and technology, and man-made systems of morality and truth. The differences in styles of thinking manifests itself in medicine. Eastern medicine emphasizes treatment of the whole body—body, mind, and spirit. Western medicine tends to treat the symptoms, emphasizing the body, with the mind and spirit—if there is a spirit—being part of the function of the brain. Jesus spoke about spiritual matters without need for explanation because the spirituality of mankind is assumed in Eastern thought—it fits established and known patterns.

Eastern teaching recognizes the power of storytelling as opposed to Western teaching that emphasizes facts and research. Jesus, like other Eastern teachers, used storytelling as a primary teaching technique. A clear example is His use of parables. Stories come alive in a listener's mind and make the instruction more memorable. Jesus used anecdotal techniques, yet Jesus also spoke to truth that stands up to logical argument and deductive reasoning.

One of the elements that attracted me to Jesus was that everything he said and taught was open to historical investigation and was incredibly supported by prophecies and by his works… His stories are so Eastern, yet his arguments are also sound for the Westerner… His reasoning is global; his stories are local; his visitation is transcendent; his message is personal; and his implications are eternal. (Ravi Zacharias)

Religiously, many people are now referred to as Jews. But what does it mean to be a Jew? Does it refer to a nationality? Does it refer to an ethnicity? Does it refer to a religion?

The term Jew originated in the times of the Romans, meaning a person from the Roman district of Judea. As an anachronism, it is translated back into the Old Testament for the term Yehudi, meaning a person from the former Kingdom of Judah. Yahad, meaning to essentially take up the religion or lifestyle of the Jews, also is translated Jew. In its practical use, the term Jew can be used of a nationality, meaning a former citizen of the Kingdom of Judah; of an ethnicity, meaning a descendant of Jacob (Israel) or particularly the tribe of Judah; and of one who practices a religion—Judaism.

The religion of Judaism, including the synagogue, was born during the exile in Babylonia and Persia. Judaism was a man-made response to the Jewish exiles' impossible position of wanting to remain loyal to God but having no nation, no priesthood, and no temple. The Jews focused on what they had (they had the Torah and were God's people) and what they could do (concentrate on the law rather than nationhood and on personal piety, prayer, and a relationship with God as an acceptable substitute for sacrificial offerings). The religion of the Hebrew people changed drastically while they were in exile, and when Jews returned from exile, they brought back with them their new religion—Judaism.

Probably the most central development in this new religion was that the notion developed that prayer, penitence, good works, and meeting together as a congregation could become the new means to righteousness and atonement—the sacrificial system was no longer required. When Judaism was developed, there was no central place of worship (no temple), so the new religious system incorporated many houses of worship—a system that eventually came to be called synagogues. Instead of Levitical priests, self-appointed religious leaders took on the task of instruction. These were the rabbis, and this instruction over time took on a life of its own. Satisfaction with this new religious system was probably a major factor in the decision of many (probably most) Jews not to return to Israel from exile. The vast majority of Jews preferred the new Judaism, and the many synagogue leaders were not interested in giving up their authority. This new religion, called Judaism, fundamentally redefined Jewishness.

By the time of Jesus, four sects had developed in Judaism—Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and Zealots. The Pharisees followed a legalistic form of Judaism that emphasized rabbinical law (Halakhah) as equal to—or even greater than—Torah instruction. The Sadducees recognized Torah instruction alone (just the five books of Moses—Genesis through Deuteronomy) as authoritative, denying the authority of Rabbinical or Oral Law. The Essenes emphasized Torah instruction but believed that the Sadducees had corrupted the priesthood and the temple. The Essenes set up monk-like colonies outside of Jerusalem to exercise a purer form of Hebrew religion, but there were Essenes present in many Jewish societies. The Essenes are the ones whom most believe are the source of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Zealots were a militant group of Jews who believed that the Jews should openly rebel against Roman control. One of Jesus' twelve apostles is identified in Scripture as a zealot (Matt. 10:4).

Also present in the Holy Lands was Samaritan belief. The Samaritans had their own version of the Torah, and they, like the Sadducees, only recognized the Torah as Scripture (not the prophets or the writings). The major difference in the Samaritan Torah is that the Temple Mount in Jerusalem is not where Yahweh placed His name for worship and sacrifice—Mount Gerizim is. This is found in Deuteronomy 27 and in the Tenth Commandment of the Samaritan Torah. Mount Gerizim is located by Shechem, about thirty miles north of Jerusalem, within the territory later occupied by the northern kingdom of Ephraim-Israel (the area later to be known as Samaria, after the northern kingdom's capital city). Shechem was the site of Jacob's well, where Jesus met the Samaritan woman at the well. In her conversation with Jesus, she discussed the Samaritan's belief that her ancestors worshipped on Mount Gerizim rather than in Jerusalem as the Jews do.

Modern Bibles generally use Lord in all caps to translate the Hebrew letters Y-H-W-H. The Old Testament was originally written in Hebrew. In the original Hebrew, only consonants were written, not vowels. When God appeared to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of a burning bush, Moses asked God what His name was (Exod. 3). God told Moses His name, and it is recorded in the original Hebrew as YHWH. Sometime between the Old and New Testaments, Jews quit speaking God's name, YHWH, and its proper pronunciation was lost. Generally accepted pronunciations are Yahweh and Jehovah. Of the over six thousand times God is referred to as Lord in the Old Testament, well over 90 percent of them are YHWH in the Hebrew—God's formal name. In this study, we will occasionally refer to the name God revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai, and we will use Yahweh.

In the time of Jesus, the Jews practiced their religion with a functioning temple and a functioning priesthood, but neither were according to the instruction given in the Torah.

As to the temple, Solomon's Temple had been destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BC. When the Persians defeated the Babylonians, the Jews were allowed to return to Judea but under Persian rule. King Cyrus of Persia not only permitted the return to Judea but also ordered and helped finance the rebuilding of the temple. Under the leadership of Zerubbabel, as governor, and Joshua, as high priest, the Jews rebuilt the temple—completing it in 516 BC. This temple was far less magnificent than Solomon's Temple, and it is referred to as Zerubbabel's Temple. During the reign of Herod the Great, the temple was restored to a grandeur that is said to surpass that of even Solomon's Temple. This refurbished temple is often referred to as Herod's Temple—this is the temple that Jesus visited. Nowhere in scripture is there reference to the glory of God filling the temple upon its reconstruction by Zerubbabel or its refurbishment by Herod (as was described upon completion of the Tabernacle and of Solomon's Temple). There is also no reference to an Ark of the Covenant in either Zerubbabel's or Herod's Temple.

As to the priesthood, Sadducees controlled the temple, the priesthood, and the Sanhedrin. The Sanhedrin, the highest Jewish court, was a group of seventy men plus the high priest. It was modelled after Moses and his group of seventy elders (Num. 11:16–17), and it included Pharisees and Sadducees, but it was controlled by Sadducees. The Sadducees were aristocrats of wealthy families