Understanding the Building Construction Process: Simply Explained

By Leon P. Gander

Choosing a construction method creates contractual working relationships and interactions between parties. These working relationships and interactions are the building construction process. Typically, the parties include the owner, contractor(s), and design consultants. Building contractors and design consultants conduct business engaged in the building construction process but rarely does the owner. As a result, the owner often lacks knowledge of the process, which can cost them thousands of dollars.

This unique book explains the building construction process in easy-to-understand non-technical language. It provides the knowledge owners and or their representatives need to have some control over the process regarding cost and risk reduction. After all, the owner pays for the construction and should have some say in the process.

People working in the building construction industry or with some knowledge of the process will also benefit from the book, as will educators and their students. The book is a knowledge elevator and goes well beyond the minimum required to understand and be involved successfully in a building construction project.

• Language: English
• Publisher: BookBaby
• Release date: Apr 12, 2023
• ISBN: 9781667894027

Book preview

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COPYRIGHT © 1999, 2022 by LEON P. GANDER

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means digital, electronic, or mechanical, including scanning, photocopying, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system without written permission from the author, except for brief passages quoted in review.

Print ISBN: 978-0-9685775-1-6

eBook ISBN: 978-1-6678940-2-7

Acknowledgements

The book was self-published in 1999 and has been updated to make it relevant and informative in 2022 and beyond. However, I owe a debt of gratitude to the people who helped production in 1999.

Thanks to those who read the 1999 manuscript and gave comments and suggestions. Some of these people have since passed on, but all contributions were valuable. People included George Coghill, Russ Colombo, Margaret Hansen, Peter Hirst, Colin Laver, Dennis Mclntee and Max Vorkampff. Special thanks to Virginia Busby and Peggy Ogloff who were interested enough to ‘take an axe’ to the original manuscript, which assisted production of the 1999 book.

Thanks also to those people who read sections and supplied suggestions as well as comments on accuracy. Included are Gordon Aalhus P.Eng., Barrie Chadwick Architect, Geoff McDonell P.Eng., Cyril Pomeroy P.Eng., Horace Harrison B Comm, AIIC; Greg Robertshaw P.Eng., Karen Savage P.Eng.

And thanks to Glenn Urquhart BSc (ME) LLB, QC who also read the book and made valuable comments and suggestions.

In 2022 for review and comment on sections, thanks to Joseph Cheung P.Eng., Mo Khan P.Eng. and for editing review and comments, thanks to Lawrence Penkar P.Eng.

Table of Contents

Disclaimer

1 Introduction

Layout of the book and how best to read it

2 Terminology

Air Conditioning

Air Conditioning Unit (ACU)

Air Handling Unit (AHU)

Air Plenum

Ambient Air Temperature

Aspect Ratio

Atrium

Bid

BIM

Boiler

Bollard

Bond (Construction Bond)

Budget Price or Budget

Building Code

Building Code Relaxation/Equivalency

Building Construction or, as used in this book, Construction

Building Elevation View

Building Envelope

Building Heat Gain

Building Heat Loss

Building Permit

Building Section

Building Shell

Cable Tray

CAD

Ceiling Space

Cement

Change Order

Clerestory

Commissioning

Concrete

Conduit System

Construction (see Building Construction)

Consultant

Contemplated Change Notice (CCN)

Contemplated Change Order (CCO)

Quotation Request (QR)

Notice of Proposed Change (NOPC)

Notice of Change (NOC)

Proposed Change Notice (PCN)

Change Directive (CD)

Contingency (Contingency Allowance)

Contract Documents

Contractor

Cross-Sectional Area

Curtain Wall

Design Discipline

Demising Wall

Design Panel

Development Permit

Drawings and Specifications

Duplex Receptacle

Electrical Outlet

Electrical Receptacle or Receptacle

Electrical Plug or Plug

Elevation (see Building Elevation)

Envelope (see Building Envelope)

Fast-Tracking

Finished Space/Unfinished Space

Floor Plan

Glazing

Heat Gain (see Building Heat Gain)

Heat Loss (see Building Heat Loss)

HVAC

Inverter

Jurisdiction

Letters of Assurance

Life-Cycle Cost-Benefit Analysis also known as Life-Cycle Costing

Lumen

Luminaire or Light Fixture

Millwork

Monetary Allowances

Night Light

Open Office Area or Open Plan Office

Occupancy Permit

Owner

Payback

PC Sum, PC Allowance (see Monetary Allowance)

Plan View, abbreviated as Plan

Private Sector Project

Public Sector Project

Scale

Scope of Work

Section (see Building Section)

Service Room

Seismic

Sine Wave

Site Instruction, Site Order, Field Order, Field Instruction, or similarly named document

Skylight

Sophisticated Owner

Tenant Improvements

Tender

Thermostat

UPS

Upset Price

Utilitarian Product

Vaulted Ceiling or Vaulted Space

Valve

Watertight

Weatherproof

3 Building Components, Services, And Systems

Codes and Standards

Other Issues of Codes and Standards

Building Components

Architectural Systems

Combustible Construction

Non-Combustible Construction

Roofing

Ceilings

Exterior Wall Systems

Interior Wall Systems

Flooring Systems

Millwork Systems

Door Hardware

Elevators, Escalators and Stairs

Structural Systems

Wood/Steel Elements

Concrete

Design

Seismic Design

Mechanical Systems - HVAC

Ventilation

Indoor Air Quality

Air Handling Systems

Air Ducts

Air Duct Insulation

Fire Dampers

Supply Air Diffusers

Air Recirculation

Return Air

Exhaust Air

Vibration Isolation

Heating Systems

Environmental Concerns for Heating Systems

Electric Heat

Heating Systems Other Than Electric

Complications of Energy Source Selection

Forced Air Heating (Non-electric)

Hot Water Heating (Non-electric)

Heat Pumps

Air Conditioning

Building Comfort Zones

Mechanical System Controls

Mechanical Systems Balancing and Commissioning

Balancing

Commissioning

Site Drainage

Foundation (or Footing) Drains

Mechanical Systems - plumbing

Rainwater Drain Piping

Sewage Piping, Sanitary Piping

Drain Piping - General

Pumping

Disposal

Clean-outs

Pressure Piping Systems

Water Hammer

Insulation

Hot Water

Gas Piping

Commissioning

Plumbing System Considerations

Mechanical Systems - fire suppression or fire protection Systems

Sprinkler Systems

Wet Sprinkler System

Dry Sprinkler System

Pre-action Sprinkler System

Deluge Sprinkler System

Sprinkler Systems - General

Fire Pump

Total Flooding Fire Suppression Systems

Commissioning

Electrical Systems

Electrical Terminology

Utility Services

Power Service

Codes and Standards

Efficiency of Light Sources

Fluorescent Ballasts

HID Light Sources

Fluorescent and LED Lighting

LED Lighting

Downlights

Color Rendering Ability

Lighting of Spaces Where Computers/Screens are Used

Cost of Owning a Lighting System

Interior Lighting Control

Considerations Regarding Exterior Lighting

Exterior Lighting Control

Emergency Lighting

Standby or Emergency Generator

Exit Signs

Fire Alarm System

Fire Alarm System Components

Costs of Ownership of a Fire Alarm System

Smoke Alarms

Communication/Telephone Service

Telephone and Data Wiring

Cables for Telephone and Data Communications

Commissioning

PCBs

More Discussion on Electrical Matters

Transformers

Power Distribution

Phase

Electrical Loads

Power Factor

Power Quality

Transient Voltage Suppression

Grounding

Cost of Owning a Lighting System

Energy Efficiency

Lamp Life

Lamp Cost

Location

Intruder Alarm System

Building Security

Access Control

Intercom

Closed Circuit Television

Nurse Call Systems

Clocks

Public Address (PA) and Sound Systems

4 Overview of Construction Delivery Methods

Design, Bid, Build

Time

Control During Design

Control During Construction

Price for Construction

Extra Costs

Reasons for Changes

Time for Completion

What Can Happen

Construction Management

Time

Control During Design

Control During Construction

Price for Construction

Extra Costs

Time for Completion

What Can Happen

Design-Build

Time

Control During Design

Control During Construction

Price for Construction

Extra Costs

Reasons for Changes

Time for Completion

What Can Happen

Project Management

Cost-Plus Contract

Negotiated Contracts

P3 Projects

More In-Depth

5 Issues in Common for All Construction Delivery Methods

Issues Related to the Site

Sloping Site

Soil Conditions on the Site

Geotechnical Testing or Soil Testing

Sub-Surface Conditions

Contamination

A Change in Soil Conditions

Rock

Groundwater

Environmental Sensitivity

Heritage

Servicing of Sites

Construction Types

Costs and Related Issues

Operation and Maintenance Costs

Value Analysis

Initial Considerations of Operation and Maintenance Costs

Project Budget Considerations of Operation and Maintenance Costs

Why Operation and Maintenance Costs Will Often Be Ignored

Costs Associated with Building Design

Construction Budget

Incremental Cost Considerations

Maintenance Considerations

Access for Maintenance of Building Services

Maintenance of Building Finishes

Other Initial Decisions That May Become Maintenance Liabilities

Cracking of Concrete Floor Slabs in Wood-Frame Construction

Deterioration of Structural Elements in Concrete Slabs

Buildings and Water

Slabs On Grade

Foundation Walls

Exterior Walls

Water Entry Prevention

Staining

Integration (or Consolidation) of Building Systems

Sole Source Supply

Captive Owner

Owner Instruction

Owner Beware

Lack of Owner Instruction

Avoidance of Sole Source Supply

The Rewards of Sole Source Supply

Single Tender/Bid or Proposal

Single Subcontractor

Unique Products

Expensive and Custom-Made Products

Standard Building Components

Owners at a Disadvantage

Management Companies

Warranty

Residential Selling

Liabilities Created

Changes

Change Documentation

Change Pricing

Disputes Related to Changes

As-Built Drawings as a Source of Changes

Re-stocking Charge

Labor Costs

Savings

Reasons Why Savings Can Be Made

Common Suggestions for Savings

Providing Definition To a Scope of Work

Design, Bid, Build/Design-Build Project Definition

Exclusions in Design-Build

Design and its Production

Interpretation of Specifications

Relationships and Involvements with the General Contractor

General Contractor

General Contractor’s On-Site Representative

General Contractor’s Abilities

New Products, New Technology, and Innovation

New Products

New Technology

Innovation

Overview

Late Completion

Addenda

Work Performed in Existing Buildings

Problems in Existing Buildings

Materials Containing Asbestos and other Hazardous Materials

As-Built Drawings or Record Drawings

Critical Path

Concept Awareness

Construction Climate

Workings of the Industry

Games People Play

6 Design, Bid, Build

Building Consultants

Architectural Consultant

Geotechnical Consultant

Structural Consultant

Mechanical Consultant

Electrical Consultant

Cost Consultant

Acoustic Consultant

Building Code Consultant, Fire Protection Consultant

Fire Protection Consultant

Building Envelope Consultant

Certified Professional

Civil Engineering Consultant

Communications Consultant

Commissioning Consultant

Energy Consultant

Environmental Consultant

Food Services Consultant (often called a Kitchen Consultant)

Hardware Consultant

Interior Design Consultant

Landscape Consultant

Lighting Design Consultant

Programming Consultant

Roofing Consultant

Scheduling Consultant

Security Systems Consultant

Seismic Anchoring Design Consultant

Specifications Consultant

Theatre Consultant

Traffic Consultant

Consulting Office

What is Important For Design?

Consultant’s Experience

Extra Costs

Hiring Consultants

Consultant and Contractor Interaction

Consultant and Owner Interaction

Coordination

Design Coordination

BIM for Coordination

Question of Inclusion

On-Site Coordination

Fees

Percentage

Time

Cost-Plus

Fixed Fee

Consulting Fee Components

Defining a Scope of Work For Consultants

Undefined Scope of Consulting Service

Misunderstandings Regarding Fees

Periodic Site Visits

Owner’s Continuous Presence on Site

As-Built Drawings

Reduced Design

Renovation Projects

Economy of Scale about Fees

Tender or Bid Phase of Construction

Bid Bond

Instructions to Bidders

Bid Depository

Tender/Bid Preparation Costs

Check Prices

Alternative and Separate Prices

Unique and or Sole Source Supply

Tendering/Bidding Period

Unit Prices

Schedule for Completion

Low Tenderer/Bidder

Acceptance of Tenders/Bids

Late Tenders/Bids

Single Tender/Bid

Pricing of Changes

Onerous Contractual Clauses

Tender/Bid Price Changes

Naming of Trade Subcontractors and Suppliers

Savings

Addenda

Post-Tender/Bid Addendum

Addenda and Coordination

Trade Subcontractor as a GC

Design and Its Production

No Consultant

Minimal Design

Employee Involvement in Design

Owner’s Resources

Service Room Locations

Design Process

Schematic Design

Energy Modeling

Alternative Designs

Design Development

Construction Documents Stage of Design

Design Manuals

Construction Documentation

Drawings

Specifications

Monetary Allowance

Shop Drawings

Long Delivery Items

Dealing with Long Delivery Items

Tenant Improvements (TIs)

Commissioning and Related Issues

Owner’s Operation and Maintenance Package

Manual Keying

One Possible Design, Bid, Build Project

7 Design-BUILD

Design-Build Entities

Project Definition Documents

Cost of Responding

Request for Proposal Process

Owner Involvement

Building Consultants and Design

Similar Designers

Fees

As-Built Drawings or Record Drawings

Separate and Alternative Prices

Unit Prices

Unique and Sole Source Supply

Proposal Submission Process

Schedule for Completion

Proposal with Lowest Price

Late Submissions

Single Proposal

Pricing of Changes

Onerous Contract Clauses

Proposal Price Changes

Naming of Trade Subcontractors and Suppliers

Project Award

Design

Construction Documents

Shop Drawings

Long Delivery Items

Coordination

Commissioning

Owner’s Operation and Maintenance Package

BIM

Substantial Performance

One Possible Design-Build Project

8 Disputes and Dispute Resolution

Avoidance of Disputes

Lack of Due Diligence

Sub-Surface Conditions

Access to the Site

Contracts with Liquidated Damages Clauses (or ‘Penalty’ Clauses)

Acceleration

Delays

Other Causes of Disputes

9 Construction SECURITY

Professional liability insurance

Contracts

What Levels of Insurance?

Cost Estimates

Time for Completion

No Guarantor

Construction Phase Site Reviews

Industry Awareness-Heightening

Purpose of Professional Liability Insurance

Who Else Should Have Insurance?

Bonds

Types of Bonds

Bid Bond

Performance Bond

Labor and Materials Payment Bond

Maintenance Bond

No Bonding

Bonds in Design-Build Construction

Liens

Insurance

Insurance Terminologies

The Specification or Project Definition Documents

Guarantee or Warranty

10 Owners

An Owner’s Sometimes Expressed Opinion of Consultants

Firing Consultants

Checklist for Owners

11 More Material of Relevance and Practicality

More Issues in Common For all Construction Delivery Methods

Design Issues

Airborne Noise

Interior Noise

Exhaust Fumes or Contaminated Exhaust Air

Items That May Require Re-evaluation

Electrical Issues

Woe for the Owner

Room Numbering

Floor Drains

Elevated Service Rooms

Roof Drains

Roofing Inspections

Checklist of Concerns for Components, Products and Systems

Suggestions for Minimizing Consultant-Initiated Changes In Design, Bid, Build. (Adapt this Table as appropriate for Design-Build.)

Games People Play

Appendix A

One Possible Design, Bid, Build Project

One Possible Design-Build Project

Disclaimer

This publication is intended to elevate knowledge and understanding of the Building Construction Process. The publication is sold with the buyer’s acknowledgement that the author and or publisher is not engaged in making legal or other professional advice.

If legal advice or other expert help is needed, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

The analysis herein represents the experiences, opinions, and knowledge of the author, but the author and or publisher is not responsible for the results of any action taken based on information in this work nor for any errors or omissions.

1 Introduction

This is a knowledge-elevating book for understanding the building construction process and related issues, knowledge that guides risk reduction and cost avoidance.

Building construction is a complex process that involves a large group of people including contractors, tradespeople, designers, management personnel and owners. The successful completion of a building construction project requires the orderly interaction of these people.

Based on my observations of how the construction process can sometimes leave owners with less than a positive experience and or the desired result, I concluded that a book about the process of building construction would be worthwhile and of assistance to many people, owners, and others.

For each area of expertise in construction, there is a significant amount of literature already in existence, but for the average reader it is overly complicated and not easy to understand. In most cases the literature is written for those who are part of the construction industry. However, this book is written for easy understanding by readers who are not industry insiders.

I explain the intricacies of the building construction process based on my over 50+ years of working in the business. This explanation will help those unfamiliar with the construction process and aid those with a desire to learn more. The book deals exclusively with building construction, but the topics covered are common and align with other types of construction performed under a contract such as road or bridge building, underground pipe installations, etc.

The book deals with the construction process as it applies to buildings. Technical terms and concepts are discussed in easy-to-understand, non-technical language. The intent is to provide guidance and insight for owners, potential owners, or their representatives by elevating their awareness of the building construction process, practices, and procedures. The book will also interest those who already work in the construction field, such as contractors, design professionals, project managers and others whose livelihood may be in building construction.

While some owners are familiar with the construction process, many people, acting alone or as a group, start the process with little or no understanding of it. This lack of understanding puts them at a distinct disadvantage to experienced individuals with ongoing involvement in the construction process. Yet, as owners, the often-inexperienced persons have one of the most important roles, that of paying for the construction.

So, an owner or anyone else involved in a project, will prefer not to be at a disadvantage to others simply because they lack relevant experience in a field. However, the disadvantage mentioned above particularly applies in building construction where there is a lack of easy-to-find written resources that can be understood by most people. This book fills the need for such resource.

Including the owner, each of the persons involved in delivery of a construction project will bring to the process their own background of knowledge and experience. Knowledge in the construction process can be acquired in two ways: education (formal schooling) or practice (experience).

Knowledge gained by experience always complements formal schooling and is key to the successful delivery of any project (including construction projects). Experience-based knowledge is lacking for many owners (and many construction professionals and others whose livelihood is in construction).

To enhance understanding of complex building construction topics, I explain the importance of issues by giving examples and scenarios that may arise. The intent is to provide foresight so that important issues are not minimized, overlooked, or ignored because of the lack of a reasonable understanding.

At the very beginning of the construction process (during the design phase), there is often a disregard for the importance of the legal contract and the way it works in the process. This contract is normally set up between the owner-buyer and the supplier (vendor) of the services and covers the rights, obligations, and remedies to the involvement of the parties. Failure by the owner and or their representatives (consultants) to understand this legal contract, its contents and how they interact in the contractual relationship often results in disputes or litigation that may otherwise be avoided.

Many factors affect construction including:

Interest rates for borrowed capital.

Whether the state of the local economy is active or depressed.

Political/public pressure.

The emotion of various parties involved, including owners.

Trends and changes in construction delivery methods.

Research and development in construction techniques.

The relationships, rights and obligations set up by the legal contract.

The location (site) chosen for the construction.

As I explain the building construction process, how the above factors affect the process becomes evident.

Construction is about time and money, or just money as ‘time is money.’ The opportunities for disputes are numerous, and they always involve money in one way or another. So, some common dispute situations are discussed in the book. This discussion will enable avoidance of these situations or reduction in the severity of their effects if avoidance is not possible.

This book does not advocate any building construction method. Rather, the intent is to consider the issues applicable to the different methods. From discussion of the issues, the course of action may be determined by assessing the available alternatives.

In the book, a key assumption is that an owner would not want to pay for any aspect of construction unless it is required. Therefore, a common theme is minimizing cost while maintaining good operation and maintenance practices.

Based on observation and experience, in my opinion this book is required reading for owners, their representatives, and or buyers of building construction. People already working in construction will benefit too. Persons with some experience in construction may increase their knowledge to a level beyond many other participants in the industry. Further, the book will be of aid to anyone providing education courses in the construction industry.

Two points to note. Bold print within the written text is used for emphasis and metric conversions are approximate.

Layout of the book and how best to read it.

As for any book it is best read page by page.

For those with minimal experience in construction and a lack of time:

After Chapter 1, start reading at Chapter 4.

Return to Chapters 2 and 3 for a general overview of systems and components that are installed in buildings.

For those with significant experience in building construction, after chapter 1 read chapters 4, 5, 6, 7, and then the other chapters.

As a matter of interest, topics in the table of contents mostly stand-alone and may be referenced at any time.

Regardless of how you read and make use of the book, get to know all parts of it well. It is a valuable resource.

Now, before you proceed, there are a couple of more things to note.

The book uses the word architect to mean a building design architect or building design professional. The book does not advocate the use of any group of people for building design. The word architect is meant to cover situations where others as well as architects, can practice as building designers. However, in most situations, it is an architect who performs building design work.

If you skip reading chapter 2, you will miss the reason why you will see some words in italics. The words in italics may help those who read the book page by page. See the explanation for italics in the first paragraph of chapter 2.

2 Terminology

This chapter is a useful reference guide to some terms used throughout the book. I have included this tool near the beginning so that it is easy to find. Upon the first use of a defined term in each later chapter, the term is in italics for easy reference back here.

AirConditioning

This term refers to the provision of warm or cool air to a space to create a feeling of comfort for occupants.

Air Conditioning Unit (ACU)

This component of mechanical equipment is part of the system that supplies warm or cool air.

Air Handling Unit (AHU)

This term describes a component of mechanical equipment containing integral fans and blowers that moves air through ducts.

Air Plenum

This is a term used to describe an enclosure for air supplied from or returning to an air handling unit. A return air plenum is an enclosure for air to return to an air handling unit. In some buildings, the ceiling spaces are used as return air plenums.

Ambient Air Temperature

This is the average temperature of air in a space.

Aspect Ratio

This ratio describes the geometric shape of an air duct.

Atrium

This is a space with a high ceiling built to encompass several floors in a building and often includes considerable glazing. Normally an atrium is an architectural feature of a building.

Bid

This word is a verb, as in to bid. It can also be a noun, as in receipt of a bid or a bidder. Relative to construction, it normally refers to the process of a contractor formulating a price (bid) for a defined scope of work. (See also Tender). The word Tender may be unfamiliar to some, so from here on I use the term tender/bid where the words are interchangeable.

BIM

Building Information Modelling has the acronym BIM. BIM is a software-created digital representation of the building in a 3-dimensional format. A building project using BIM techniques will typically have all the major building consultant designs included in the BIM representation. Such inclusions may be made by design consultants or there may be a separate consultant for BIM.

Besides the main building consultants, other consultant designs that may be included in a BIM representation are landscape architecture and civil works such as for uncovered parking lots etc. You may make further reference to BIM using internet resources such as Google, YouTube, Wikipedia, etc.

Boiler

A boiler is mechanical equipment used to produce hot water. Simply, a hot water boiler encloses a fire through which pipes containing water are run. Fire heats water in the pipes to produce hot water. Natural gas, propane, or oil can produce the fire. An electric boiler is similar except electric elements heat water in the same way as an element in an electric kettle.

Bollard

This is a short steel post set in the ground that typically projects between 3 and 5 feet (0.9m and 1.5m) above ground. Bollards may prevent automobile encroachment into an area, such as a garden. To help prevent theft by auto ramming, a commercial storefront may have bollards buried in concrete to a depth of 3 feet (0.9m) or more.

A bollard light fixture is a short post with a light source at the top of the post.

Bond (Construction Bond)

Those in the industry refer to a construction bond as simply a bond. A construction bond is a surety bond. A surety bond is a 3-party contract where party A (the Bonding company) guarantees that party B (the Principal, such as a contractor) will fulfill its obligations to party C (the Obligee, such as an Owner). Chapter 9 discusses construction bonding.

Budget Price or Budget

A budget price is a prediction of the cost to perform a defined scope of work. The accuracy of a budget price will depend on the expertise of those who prepare it.

Building Code

As used in this book, Building Code is a reference to the requirements that regulate construction in a jurisdiction. The ‘Building Code’ may be one or more books and may often have a series of references to other published codes and standards requiring such other documents to be included as part of it. The building code may also be a nationally published book with local amendments to suit various jurisdictions. The building code may be a combination of all the above.

Thus, the term ‘Building Code’ includes all the regulations that a building department in a jurisdictionwill consider governs construction of buildings.

Building Code Relaxation/Equivalency

This describes a negotiation that may occur with a jurisdictional authority, like a Building Department, where difficult and costly building code requirements can sometimes be offset by using alternative design accommodations.

Building Construction or, as used in this book, Construction

Construction involves the building of space for occupancy. Construction may involve building new buildings, building additions to, and or performing renovations in existing buildings. There are normally two phases in construction. The first is the design phase, and the second is the on-site construction phase.

Building Elevation View

This is an exterior view of a building like that seen in a photograph of one side of a building. For example, east elevation means a view of the east side of the building. To view the east side of the building, a person must face west.

Building Envelope

This refers to parts of a building forming exposure between building exterior and earth or the atmosphere. The envelope includes the floor and walls in contact with earth below grade, as well as those exposed to the weather, the roof, and walls.

Building Heat Gain

Light fixtures and people give off heat to the surrounding air. The temperature of the air in a building will increase from these two sources, and this is heat gain. Other items that contribute to heat gain include electrically operated office machines and computers. All electrically powered equipment gives off heat because some or all the power consumed is converted to heat. The other major contributor to heat gain is the conduction and radiation of heat from the sun. Such heat gain is through the building envelope, particularly the glazing. (Heat gain from the sun is solar heat gain.)

Building Heat Loss

The building exterior components (or the envelope) enable heat transfer from a warm interior to a cool exterior. This heat loss occurs for the same reason hot coffee will not remain hot in a thermos for several days. The thermos is insulated; however, the insulation is not perfect and does not prevent heat from slowly transferring through it. Likewise, a building loses heat from all its exterior components including roofs, walls, doors, skylights, windows, and floors. Some components allow more heat loss than others.

Building Permit

This is a permit issued by a Building Department to allow construction to begin.

Building Section

A building section is what you would see if you cut the building open; the location of the cut defines the section. There are two new sides created by each cut, and therefore two views at each section. The way the section lines are drawn on the floor plans shows the direction to be used to view the section. Designers use sections to give details about the proposed building components.

Building Shell

This is a description of the basic components of a building and consists of the foundations, floor(s), roof, and exterior walls constructed to be weatherproof. The shell may be built with the expectation that one or more tenants will be found who may occupy part or all the building. The interior space is normally unfinished. (See also Finished/Unfinished Space and Tenant Improvements.)

Cable Tray

A cable tray is a support system for wires and cables and one form has two sides, a bottom, and an open top. Reasonably common height and width dimensions of a 10-foot (3m) length of cable tray may be 12 inches (305mm) wide and 4 inches (100mm) high. The 10-foot lengths are bolted together to form longer lengths. Cable tray systems may commonly be installed in the ceiling spaces of buildings. In such spaces, they supply a means of support for various cables, such as telephone, computer data, power, etc.

CAD

This is an abbreviation for two phrases, computer-aided drafting, and computer-aided design. Computer-aided drafting is often called CAD drafting and is drafting using a software program. There are many CAD drafting software programs, some more popular than others. Some owners dictate the CAD drafting program and setup standard they want used, to ensure formatting uniformity and consistency of information for their past and present projects.

Computer-aided design refers to software programs used by designers in formulating designs. There are software programs for all kinds of design for systems in buildings and for designs in other industries. Three examples of software programs used in design for building services are lighting, fire sprinklers, and energy-use modeling.

Ceiling Space

When a ceiling is suspended below the roof or below the floor of the next upper level, the space above the ceiling is the ceiling space.

Cement

Cement is a component of concrete. It is a powder that with the addition of water, makes a binding agent. When mixed with the other components of concrete and allowed to set, the effect of the binding agent is creation of the solid mass of concrete.

Change Order

This is the paperwork issued to the contractor to formally acknowledge a change in the scope of work of the contract. It defines the change in scope, the cost involved and the extension of time to the contract, if any. This document formalizes the previously issued contemplated change notice or change directive.

Clerestory

This is a form of skylight installed to be vertical or close to vertical. Clerestories often form part of the saw-tooth shape of the rooflines of old warehouses or manufacturing facilities. In those buildings, the vertical face of the saw-tooth shape often had clerestory-type skylights.

Commissioning

This is the process of testing functionality from a set of rules written to demonstrate correct operation and involves the physical observation of cause and effect. When you buy a piece of equipment such as a new computer you check it out to see that it works properly, which is a form of commissioning.

As it relates to buildings, commissioning is an important part of proving the proper functioning of installed systems.

Concrete

Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, sand, and gravel that is poured into a mold to set.

Concrete molds can take many shapes. One simple shape for a mold is four boards laid on edge to form a square (as may be done at home on the ground to make a concrete base for a backyard barbecue). Concrete continues drying and hardening for about a month after it is poured but may be walked on a couple of days after being poured.

In construction, the hardness or strength of concrete is important. Therefore, samples of the concrete poured for components of a building will be sent to a laboratory for strength analysis. If concrete does not set to the strength required, it must be removed and replaced.

Concrete strength-test results are not evident for a period after concrete is poured. After concrete is poured and before test results are known, a substantial amount of construction can be done on a building site. Consequently, removal of concrete that has failed to set properly may be a significant problem. It is not often that concrete fails when tested, but it can and does happen. Three common reasons for failure are insufficient cement, water added on site, and the freezing of freshly poured concrete in cold climates.

Concrete used in construction is mixed off site and transported by truck, it is then pumped through a hose to the location of the concrete pour.

Conduit System

This is a pipe system into which electrical wiring is installed.

Construction(see Building Construction)

Consultant

As used in this book, consultant refers to the various persons who perform design, and construction phase site observations. Consultants include architects, engineers, interior designers, and design technicians, as well as others that supply a design, testing, or installation review service related to construction.

Contemplated Change Notice (CCN)

Contemplated Change Order (CCO)

Quotation Request (QR)

Notice of Proposed Change (NOPC)

Notice of Change (NOC)

Proposed Change Notice (PCN)

Change Directive (CD)

The above terms are names for documents issued to inform the general contractor of a proposed change in the scope of work of a project. The documents normally outline the change in scope and are issued to the contractor for pricing.

Contingency (Contingency Allowance)

This is a monetary allowance for an as ‘yet to happen’ situation. It is a monetary figure in the project budget to deal with items (unforeseen, added, deleted, or changed) that may arise during construction.

Contract Documents

In construction, the phrase ‘contract documents’ is a common reference to those documents signed by the owner and the contractor for construction of a facility. These documents define the legal rights and obligations of the owner and the contractor as well as the technical information that notes the requirements for achieving finished construction.

Contractor

In construction, there are many contractors each having capabilities in one or more areas of expertise. For example, a mechanical contractor has expertise in mechanical system installations for buildings, but that is not enough to construct a complete building. There must be a lead contractor with a role like the conductor of an orchestra. This lead contractor will organize, arrange, and coordinate their activities and that of others. The contractor who coordinates these activities is the prime or general contractor. Normally, one contractor on a project has the role of general contractor.

Contractors with certain specialized areas of expertise, such as mechanical, electrical, painting, etc., are normally subcontractors to the general contractor. (The subcontractors may be compared to the musicians in an orchestra.) However, there are projects where a specialized contractor will act as a general contractor. For example, an electrical contractor may act as a general contractor if a building were to be electrically rewired or a fire alarm system upgraded. Such a project would be mostly electrical; therefore, an electrical contractor may be a general contractor.

Cross-Sectional Area

This is the area seen by viewing an object as if it were cut with a knife.

Curtain Wall

This term describes the type of exterior walls of a building. A curtain wall is an exterior wall system that is attached to the outside of the building structure. In one form, a curtain wall is an integral arrangement of glazed panels installed as the exterior wall system on tall buildings.

Design Discipline

This is a term describing an area of expertise in design without naming the area. For example, a building structural consultant practices in the design discipline of Building Structural Design. Similarly, an architect practices in the design discipline of Architecture. An electrical consultant involved with building electrical systems practices in the design discipline of building electrical services.

Demising Wall

These are walls in a multi-tenant building separating the tenants from each other as well as from communal areas. (Communal areas are spaces used by all the tenants in a building and typically include corridors, washrooms, car parks, elevators, stairwells, etc.)

Design Panel

This is a group of people who are assembled by a building department to review a building’s design aesthetic as it relates to the adjacent buildings and surroundings. This panel may be formed entirely of architects, or of architects and others. Sometimes building department employees alone or together with persons selected from the public may be included in a design panel.

Development Permit

This permit may be needed before a building permit is granted. If it is needed, some details of the proposed project may need to be revealed before a permit is issued. Such details will allow the building department to perform a preliminary assessment of the impact of the building on the existing surroundings and infrastructure.

Drawings and Specifications

This is a means for defining the technical scope of work of a project. Drawings are graphical representations, such as floor plans and elevations. Specifications are a book-form in-depth description of the requirements for the project. Specifications deal with the legal issues of the contract as well as the technical aspects. Drawings and specifications may be in the form of hard-copy (paper) or soft-copy (electronic, digital). For smaller projects, sometimes technical specifications may be on the drawings.

Duplex Receptacle

This is the standard North American double 120-volt electrical receptacle outlet assembly. Two electrical appliances may be plugged into the outlet.

Electrical Outlet

This is a location where electrical wiring built into the walls or ceiling spaces of a building will enable connection to a device that requires electrical power. A duplex receptacle is a form of electrical outlet.

Electrical Receptacle or Receptacle

This is an electrical outlet that mates with a plug (see also Duplex Receptacle).

Electrical Plugor Plug

This is an electrical device that connects to a receptacle. A plug is the connection device at the end of an appliance cord.

Elevation(see Building Elevation)

Envelope (see Building Envelope)

Fast-Tracking

This is a technique used to enable construction to begin before all aspects of the design are fully complete. For example, excavation work and construction of foundations may occur before design of the building is finished. If the size and general shape of the building are known, the foundations may be designed and construction of them begin. Fast-tracking will often require assumptions concerning unknowns. Such assumptions will normally be very conservative to allow for any eventuality. Fast-tracking can easily result in over-design and higher costs than may otherwise be necessary.

FinishedSpace/Unfinished Space

Finished Space in a building refers to the appearance of the space. (Finished space is not only complete; it has the appearance of being complete.) It is a space in which ceilings and lighting are installed, carpet is laid, walls are painted, etc.

Unfinished space refers to the warehouse-like appearance of a newly constructed and completed space. Space described as unfinished may have bare concrete walls, exposed electrical wiring, light fixtures hanging from chains, exposed air ducts, and unpainted walls. The term ‘unfinished space’ can also refer to a space awaiting completion, such as a shelled space (see Building Shell).

Floor Plan

This is a view of a building or part of it seen by looking down from above. Wall locations will define different rooms or areas. Normally, a floor plan is drawn scaled down from full size (see Scale).

Glazing

This is a term describing the use of glass in a building. Glass can be used in a variety of components including doors, walls (usually as windows), and roofs (often as skylights). Glass components are the building glazing.

Heat Gain(see Building Heat Gain)

Heat Loss(see Building Heat Loss)

HVAC

This is an abbreviation of the phrase Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning.

Inverter

This device takes power from a battery system and converts it to AC power like what a utility company supplies to buildings. An inverter is like a miniature battery-operated generator supplying AC power.

Jurisdiction

As used in this book, jurisdiction defines the physical area where a building department has authority over construction. For example, a city, town, municipality, county, province, or state.

AHJ is an abbreviation for Authority Having Jurisdiction meaning governing authority. AHJ does not necessarily relate to a physical location.

Letters of Assurance

These documents are related to the requirements of regulatory authorities. Therefore, they are only applicable in jurisdictions that make use of them. There may be two types of letters of assurance: one for the design phase of a project, the other for the construction phase.

When required, designers issue a letter to confirm that the design meets the applicable building code. These letters may need to be issued for each major design discipline (architectural, structural, mechanical, electrical, etc.). The letters must normally be submitted before the building department will issue a building permit.

Letters of Assurance for Design may require a consultant to sign and seal the design documents in their role as a member of an empowering body. Such a body may ensure designers perform to at least a defined minimum standard.

Letters of Assurance for the construction phase will normally be coupled with Letters of Assurance for design. Construction phase letters of assurance indicate that the designer has made site observations and that the installation conforms to the design documents. Construction phase letters may need to be issued before the building department provides a permit enabling occupancy.

Regardless of the above discussion, there are many jurisdictions where Letters of Assurance are not part of the construction process.

Life-Cycle Cost-BenefitAnalysisalso known as Life-Cycle Costing

This is an analysis involving consideration of installation costs and the costs of operation and maintenance over the life of a building component or system. Often such analyses will be done for lighting systems, heating systems, air conditioning systems, or other building systems, to compare over their useful life the economic merits of different systems or components.

Lumen

This is a measure of the light output of a source of light.

Luminaire or Light Fixture

Luminaire is a specialized term used by the lighting industry to describe what most people call a light fixture. (In some parts of the world, a light fixture is called a light fitting.)

Millwork

This term describes counters, cupboards, tables, desks, workstations, and related items fastened to building components. A movable table that can seat persons on all four sides is not a millwork item; however, a seating booth fastened to the floor or wall in a fast-food restaurant is a millwork item.

Monetary Allowances

These are a mechanism for including in a construction contract, sums of money to pay for designated items or services. They prevent a general contractor from having to guess at costs. For example, there may be a requirement for inclusion of $20,000 in the contract price to allow the contractor to pay for concrete testing.

Common terms used for monetary allowances are Cash Allowances and PC (Prime Cost) sums. Prime Cost is British terminology for a Monetary Allowance

Night Light

This light may be motion sensor controlled or be ‘on’ all night, usually for security purposes. Night lights can also function to prevent hazardous conditions for persons moving around in the building when other lights are ‘off.’

Open Office Area or Open PlanOffice

This is an area of an office building where the separations between workstations do not extend to the ceiling. The separations between workstations are either non-existent, low-height partitions, or furniture items.

Occupancy Permit

This is a permit issued by the governing authority after construction is complete. It signifies that the building is safe to occupy.

Owner

This is the owner of the building. It may be one person, a group of people, a company, or an entity, such as a city, municipality, school board, hospital board, etc.

Payback

Payback is a term used in life-cycle costing. It is the time taken for the supply and installation cost for a comparison system or component of a building to equal the cost savings made in its operation and maintenance. Payback is stated in years and fractions thereof.

PC Sum, PC Allowance (see Monetary Allowance)

Plan View, abbreviated as Plan

A Plan View is a 2-dimensional layout of space as seen from above. An architectural floor plan for a one-storey building is a drawing to scale locating walls, doors, and windows on the plan. A mechanical service floor plan superimposes ducts and pipes on the architectural plan. Similarly, a reflected ceiling plan is a 2-dimensional view of the ceiling and devices mounted in it when viewed from below the ceiling.

PrivateSector Project

This is a project in which the source of funding is from the private enterprise sector of the economy.

Public Sector Project

This is a project in which the source of funding is from taxpayers, meaning projects carried out by governments, cities, municipalities, and townships.

Scale

This describes a method of representing an object smaller than its actual size. Usually, this word refers to the scale used to prepare a drawing. Drawings for buildings are normally drawn to a scale smaller than full size. Metric scales often used for floor plans are 1 to 100, written 1:100. This scale is closely approximated by the imperial scale, 1/8 of an inch equals 1 foot, written 1/8" = 1 ft.

Scope of Work

This is a definition of the work involved in completing the contract. It can take different forms, such as drawings and specifications alone or combined.

Section(see Building Section)

Service Room

This is a room set aside in a building to house building service equipment.

For example, a sprinkler room may house sprinkler valves and other equipment forming part of the sprinkler installation. An electrical room will house electrical equipment. A boiler room may house a boiler as well as other items forming part of the mechanical installation. A mechanical room will house mechanical equipment, such as fans, pumps, hot water tanks, boilers, etc.

All these different rooms are building service rooms or simply Service Rooms.

Seismic

This is a word often used as an adjective and states (in one word) the phrase: having to do with an earthquake.

Sine Wave

This is a term that describes a smoothly alternating wave shape as observed over time (by an appropriate instrument). Sine waves are the common shapes of the electrical power components, voltage and current, discussed in chapter 3.

Site Instruction, Site Order, Field Order, Field Instruction, or

similarly named document.

This is a document issued to the contractor to clarify some aspects of the design or construction contract. In the past, the intent was that site instructions had no cost associated with them. However, from recent experience, it seems that many designers issue site instructions instead of contemplated change notices and wait for the contractor to determine that the site instruction involves cost.

Of course, issuing site instructions when change notices should be issued (because the work is extra) can become the source of a dispute. A dispute can occur if the issuer (usually the owner’s representative) states there is no cost associated with the site instruction and the contractor insists there is.

Skylight

This is a form of window that lets light in from the sky. Skylights come in various shapes and sizes. A familiar skylight is one built into the roof of a residence.

Sophisticated Owner

In 1999 one dictionary (Merriam-Webster) defined sophisticated as being ‘made wise or worldly-wise by experience or disillusionment,’ which does not need an update. This definition is particularly apt in Building Construction because an owner becomes sophisticated from using the building and attending to the results of design and construction. The progression of an owner from naive to sophisticated will often result from a series of ‘bad’ experiences, which for further construction may result in creation of a list of prohibited items or systems.

Tenant Improvements

Normally, this term refers to the interior construction performed within a building shell. This construction is to accommodate the activities of the tenant (see also Building Shell).

Tender

This word is a verb, as in to tender. It can also be a noun, as in receipt of a tender or a tenderer. Relative to construction, it normally refers to the process of a contractor formulating a price (tender) for a defined scope of work. (See also Bid). The word Tender may be unfamiliar to some, so from here on I use the term tender/bid where the words are interchangeable.

Thermostat

This is an on/off switch that operates in response to its ability to sense and react to changing temperatures. A thermostat may have its sensor mounted in its enclosure, or the sensor may be remote. If the thermostat sensor is remote, there is normally some kind of ‘umbilical cord’ (wire) to send the sensed temperature to the switch location. A wall thermostat used in a residence to control a furnace is sensitive to the ambient temperature, and it has the temperature sensor and the on/off switch in the same enclosure.

UPS

UPS is an abbreviation for ‘Uninterruptible Power Supply.’ A UPS may be in a building in conjunction with a standby generator to prevent power interruptions to certain equipment (usually computer equipment) or parts of the building. A generic form of UPS consists of rechargeable batteries and an inverter. Batteries have a limitation on how long they can supply power. Therefore, when the utility power fails, a battery-operated UPS may supply power until a standby generator begins operation.

Upset Price

An upset price is a guaranteed maximum price. Sometimes an upset price is coupled with a budget price. Thus, the project budget price may be for some value with a guaranteed maximum (upset) price set at a figure above the budget price. To accommodate circumstances over which there is little or no control, negotiation may determine an upset price.

An upset price can be subject to dispute when unforeseen circumstances cause a project cost to exceed an upset price. Upset prices may not foresee any one of several situations, such as the discovery of materials having asbestos, discovery of contaminated soils, or strikes by an owner’s employees.

Utilitarian Product

A utilitarian product performs well in terms of intended function, is economical and energy efficient. Its cost and performance are of more concern than its aesthetic appeal. To broaden appeal by improving the aesthetics of a utilitarian product, significant added cost results. Such appealing utilitarian products are described as ‘architectural.’ One question about these items is whether it is necessary to pay added costs for products described as architectural, since they mostly perform the same as utilitarian products. The decision should rest with the owner. Whether it does or not is another matter. The description of a product as being utilitarian or architectural is particularly applicable to light fixtures.

Vaulted Ceilingor Vaulted Space

A vaulted space or a space with a vaulted ceiling has a shape that rises above the height of the surrounding area. The shape inside the space may sometimes rise to a peak and give the interior space a shape like that of an A. (Having an A-shape is also how the term ‘A-frame building’ originated.)

Valve

A valve is a technical name for a tap. It is like a water tap in a bathroom since it controls the flow of a liquid (or gas). Valves can either be completely on/off devices with no ‘in-between’ capability, or they can regulate flow by being set anywhere between completely off to fully on. Valves may be controlled manually or automatically.

Watertight

This describes an item or product that prevents the entry of water from any angle. A watertight component may initially prevent the entry of water, but its water tightness facility may deteriorate over time by exposure to weather conditions.

Weatherproof

This describes a component that can withstand exposure to the weather, such as wind, rain, snow, or sunlight. Importantly, items can be weatherproof but not watertight. Conventional weatherproof designs will normally rely on rain striking an object at a downward angle. Therefore, water directed by a hose at an upward angle to the object may result in water entry to an otherwise weatherproof item.

3 Building Components, Services, and Systems

The following discussion is an overview of common building components, services, systems, features, and issues. It is not intended to deal with every situation that can arise in building design or construction.

Building services and systems include some or all the following:

Architectural systems and components.

Civil, Geotechnical, and Structural systems.

Heating and Ventilation systems.

Air conditioning systems.

Plumbing and Drainage systems.

Fire suppression systems. These may be fire sprinkler systems or other systems with fire suppression capabilities.

Electrical lighting and power distribution systems.

Electrical life-safety systems including exit signs, emergency lighting and fire alarm.

Communication systems including data, public address, intercom, telephone, etc.

Elevators, escalators, and stairs. In other words, facilities for moving people vertically in a building as well as for circulation in it.

Unique requirements within some buildings. For example, a hospital can have unique requirements in certain areas such as medical gas piping, nurse call systems, special grounding, operating room ventilation systems, etc.

Codes and Standards

Normally, when a new building is to be constructed, there is a process that involves documentation submission. This process depends on the construction requirements of the authority having jurisdiction. Construction of a building involves submission(s) to the building department to ensure the building will ‘fit in’ with its intended surroundings. Such a process may also require a permit to develop in the proposed location. An application for a permit to develop or, as sometimes called, a development permit normally involves the provision of details about the function and aesthetics of the proposed building as it relates to surrounding buildings.

Most civic authorities have zoning by-laws that divide their jurisdiction into areas of allowable building types. For example, there will be an area zoned as residential. This designation means that only residential projects can be built in such zones. Similarly, there will be areas of zoning where only buildings of a commercial nature may be built. There may also be areas zoned for industrial use such as for factories, manufacturing plants, and warehouses.

When appropriate, an application can be made to an authority to change the zoning of an area to allow a building of a type the zoning may otherwise restrict. For example, an area zoned as industrial may prevent the construction of a church. Yet, from an urban planning point of view, it may be acceptable and desirable for a church to be there. So, the developers of the church may be prompted to apply for re-zoning, which if granted may enable the church to be built in the industrial area.

In addition to the urban planning tool of zoning, in building construction there must also be compliance with the building code.

Building codes outline the minimum requirements to be included in the design and construction of various types of buildings. The primary purpose of building codes is to mandate occupant health and safety in buildings and their surroundings for everyday activity and for fire or other emergencies. The mandate extends to outside the building since an attachment to the building should not be a danger to a passer-by.

Building codes deal at minimum with:

Structural and seismic design requirements for the building.

Wall and roof requirements concerning attachment to the structure.

Construction materials, such as the use of combustible or non-combustible components.

Life safety system requirements, such as fire alarm, emergency lighting, exit signage and fire sprinklers.

Ventilation systems.

Exiting requirements, including elevators, stairwells, and signage to help find exits and the routes to them.

High buildings

Fire-fighters elevators (when applicable)

Accessibility for persons with disabilities

Other issues that may be dealt with include:

Energy conservation in direct response to the significant amount of energy used in buildings for lighting, heating, and air conditioning cooling.

Building emissions.

Issues that are problems in the local jurisdiction. For example, a building code in a location that has a wet climate may require construction methods to preclude later problems from water entry into the building envelope. Possible later problems include wood rot, damage to structure, mold growth etc.

Local amendments or bylaws

Building codes, like other codes will refer to other supplementary standards and codes. A standard is a compilation of recommended best practices and typically covers one major building system or component. The NFPA® (National Fire Protection Association) is one body that publishes many standards dealing with a multitude of specific topics. Standards writing bodies in many countries publish standards documents and or adopt standards already in existence such as the NFPA standards. Examples of standards published by NFPA are:

NFPA#13 – Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems

NFPA#80 - Standard for Fire Doors and Other Opening Protectives

NFPA#96 - Standard for Ventilation Control and Fire Protection of Commercial Cooking Operations

Standards, referenced by building codes can thus be incorporated into them. This is just one means by which a building code can be a multitude of different items of documentation.

Some designers misunderstand the difference between codes and standards. Codes mandate the requirement for a feature in a building. However, a standard explains how the feature should be installed. If a designer is unclear on the distinction between codes and standards, systems that are not code mandated may be installed. Added installation may enhance the function or features of a building; but is not free of monetary cost.

Designing to meet codes and standards does not mean that minimum requirements cannot be exceeded. Codes are not design manuals but are a statement of minimum requirements for design and generally do not indicate installation details and technique. Standards are closer to design manuals since they supply details on both installation methods and technique. However, standards are specific to a topic while design manuals are usually written to cover many topics. (Design manuals may often be written for institutional owners to establish installation uniformity in building construction).

There are situations where an owner may want more than the code mandated minimum, such as:

Fire insurance premiums are sometimes reduced if a sprinkler system is installed. An owner may find the reduction in fire insurance premiums an appealing benefit despite the installation cost of a sprinkler system that the building code may not require.

An owner may decide a major fire would be too destructive to activity or products in the building and therefore require a sprinkler system regardless of building code requirements or any reduction in insurance premiums.

An owner may consider the number of washrooms required in theatres, arenas, or stadiums. In these types of buildings, the owner may want to exceed the minimum required by the building code as a service to their patrons. Building codes do not normally concern themselves with how long the wait may be to visit a washroom. And codes are certainly not written to ensure someone does not miss the start of the next theatre act or inning at a baseball game.

Installations not mandated by a building code are regarded as voluntary and should be installed to the minimum requirement of applicable standards. However, for voluntary installation, there may be times when by agreement between the owner and the jurisdictional authorities it is appropriate to do less than the usual required minimum.

Generally, building codes categorize buildings by the activities of the occupants. For example, schools, colleges, and universities may all be regarded by a building code as one occupancy type and so have similar building code requirements. Buildings where people are bedridden, such as hospitals and nursing homes, may be another category. Where people congregate in large numbers, like theatres, auditoriums, and arenas, may be another category. Buildings where people are confined, such as jails, may be another category.

A building designation of tall, high, or high-rise, results in added complications within building codes. High-rise buildings extend beyond a defined height above grade and the designation originates from the inability of fire department ladder trucks to reach beyond a certain height. A high-rise building will have a height defined in the building code. High-rise buildings bring an added set of fire and life-safety concerns compared to other types of buildings. Under fire alarm conditions, a typical requirement for a high-rise building may be for stairwells to have fresh air delivered into them so that people can exit without the hazard of inhaling smoke.

Similarly, there may be one or more elevators appointed to be for fire fighters’ use. Designating an elevator for fire-fighter use will result in a requirement for it to be kept in service during a fire for a period defined in the building code. There may be communication means on each floor specifically intended for fire-fighters’ use as well as a speaker system for voice announcements. The local building code will define the exact requirements for fire and life safety in a high-rise building.

A requirement that is part of a currently applicable building code is a mandatory requirement for a new building or for additions to an existing building. The applicability of current building code requirements to existing buildings may be an entirely different matter. Some authorities having jurisdiction may have regulations governing existing buildings while some may not. If there are no regulations, the upgrading requirements are usually negotiated with the local building department. The older the buildings the more certain it is that they will not comply with current building code requirements because codes are updated and revised every few years.

Existing older