Meditations (Warbler Classics Annotated Edition)

By Marcus Aurelius and Massimo Pigliucci

Meditations by Marcus Aurelius is one of the greatest philosophical works of all time.

A collection of personal reflections written by Marcus Aurelius during his reign as one of Rome's greatest emperors, Meditations delves into topics

• Language: English
• Publisher: Warbler Classics
• Release date: Mar 19, 2023
• ISBN: 9781959891482

Marcus Aurelius

Marcus Aurelius was Roman emperor at the height of Rome's power and prosperity. Under his rule the Mediterranean world was better governed than at any time since. He was also a follower of the Stoic tradition of philosophy, and one of its finest advocates, both in the clarity and simplicity of his writing, and in the uprightness of his life. The Meditations are a set of aphorisms, personal reflections written by Marcus towards the end of his life, during the decade or more he spent campaigning in the remote Danube region. They show how even an emperor may be prey to doubt, anxiety and exasperation, and how for him, as perhaps for us all, the answer lies in submission to providence, and a refusal to be cast down or alarmed by things over which we have no control.

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MEDITATIONS

First Warbler Press Edition 2023

This book is based on the authoritative second, revised edition

first published in 1880 by George Bell & Sons, London

What is Stoicism? by Massimo Pigliucci © 2023 Messimo Pigliucci.

Reprinted by permission.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher, which may be requested at [e-mail].

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978-1-959891-47-5 (paperback)

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978-1-959891-48-2 (e-book)

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MEDITATIONS

MARCUS AURELIUS

INTRODUCTION BY

MASSIMO PIGLIUCCI

TRANSLATion, COMMENTARY, AND NOTES by

GEORGE LONG

Contents

What is Stoicism? by Massimo Pigliucci

MEDITATIONS

Book I.

Book II.

Book III.

Book IV.

Book V.

Book VI.

Book VII.

Book VIII.

Book IX.

Book X.

Book XI.

Book XII.

Biographical Sketch of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus

What is Stoicism?

by Massimo Pigliucci

K. D. Irani Professor of Philosophy at the City College of New York

Stoicism is an ancient Greco-Roman philosophy that teaches ethical self-improvement based on the notion that virtue—that is, a good character—is fundamental for happiness.

History. Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Citium (modern Cyprus) around 301 BCE, and it takes its name from the Stoa Poikile (painted porch), a public gathering place in Athens where the early Stoics met and engaged in philosophical discussions with anyone who was interested.

A second major figure of the so-called early Stoa was Chrysippus of Soli, who is actually credited with elaborating most of the doctrines that are today we associate with Stoicism. The early Stoics were of course influenced by previous philosophical schools and thinkers, in particular by Socrates and the Cynics, but also the Academics (followers of Plato) and the Skeptics.

The second period of Stoic history, referred to as the middle Stoa, saw the philosophy introduced to Rome. The Roman Marcus Tullius Cicero (not himself a Stoic, but sympathetic to the idea) is one of our major sources for both the early and the middle Stoa, since otherwise we have only fragments of the writings of the Stoics up to that point.

The third and last period of ancient Stoicism is referred to as the late Stoa, and it took place during Imperial Rome; it included the famous Stoics whose writings have been preserved in sizable parts: Gaius Musonius Rufus, Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius.

Once Christianity became the official Roman religion Stoicism declined, together with a number of other schools of thought (e.g., Epicureanism). Stoic ideas, however, survived in the writings of a number of historical figures who were influenced by it (even though they were sometimes critical of it), including Paul of Tarsus, Augustine of Hippo, Boethius, Thomas Aquinas, Giordano Bruno, Thomas More, Erasmus, Montaigne, Francis Bacon, Descartes, Montesquieu, and Spinoza. Modern Existentialism and neo-orthodox Protestant theology have also been influenced by Stoicism.

The philosophy is currently seeing a rebirth, and has deeply influenced modern practices such as rational emotive behavior therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy. It also has a number of similarities and overlaps with other philosophical approaches such as Buddhism and secular humanism.

The Stoic Egg. The Stoics thought that (practical) ethics was the most important component of their philosophy: they were interested in how to live one’s life in the best possible way. However, they also believed that it is hard to develop a viable ethics without two other components: understanding how the world works, and appreciating the power and limits of human reasoning.

Stoicism, therefore, comprised three areas of study: ethics (more on this below), physics, and logic. By physics (from the Greek physis, meaning nature) the Stoics meant something that by today’s understanding would encompass natural science and metaphysics, or what was once called natural philosophy. Of course, many of the original Stoic notions about the world have been superseded by modern science, which would not have surprised the ancient philosophers (they were very conscious of the limits of human knowledge, and very open to revise their specific beliefs).

Briefly, however, Stoic physics included the idea that the universe began in a cosmic fire (and will end the same way, only to begin anew). They also believed that the world is made of matter, and that causation is a universal phenomenon, i.e., everything that happens has a cause. Finally, the universe is organized according to rational principles, the Logos. This can be interpreted as God (for instance in Epictetus), but also simply as the idea that Nature is understandable by way of rationality (which is why we can scientifically investigate it).

A crucial idea that the Stoics derived from their physics is that life ought to be lived according to Nature, which can then in turn be interpreted as in agreement with what Zeus (God) has ordained, or simply to live according to reason, developing to its best that most specific attribute of the human animal.

In terms of Stoic logic, the word encompassed the study of logic as we more narrowly understanding it today, plus rhetoric, epistemology (i.e., a theory of knowledge), as well as what we would call psychology and related social sciences. The Stoics invented a system of logic alternative to that of Aristotle, which was largely ignored throughout the middle ages and beyond, until it began to be appreciated again with the modern advent of propositional logic (of which Stoic logic is a variety).

The Stoics distinguished between the existence of corporeal and abstract things, like a number of modern philosophers do (say, respectively, physical objects and mathematical concepts). They thought that knowledge can be attained by reason, which is in principle capable of separating true from false (they were certainly more optimistic about this than their contemporary and critics, the Skeptics). Importantly, the Stoics also adopted a very modern belief that knowledge can be achieved only by peer expertise subject to collective judgment (the way modern science works).

Ethics and practical philosophy. I assume the main reason you are reading this is not because of your interest in Stoic physics or logic—as fascinating as they are in their own regard—but because you want to learn about Stoic ethics, which is more immediately linked to their practical philosophy. So here we go, then.

The first thing to get out of the way is the misconception that Stoicism is about suppressing one’s emotions and going through life with a stiff upper lip. No, Mr. Spock was not a Stoic (despite the fact that, apparently, Gene Roddenberry, the creator of Star Trek, imagined the character according to his own, simplistic, view of what a Stoic might be like).

Rather, Stoics taught to transform emotions in order to achieve inner calm. Emotions—like fear, or anger, or love, say—are instinctive human reactions to certain situations, and cannot be avoided. But the reflective mind can distance itself from the raw emotion and contemplate whether the emotion in question should (or should not) be given assent, i.e., should be appropriated and cultivated.

To be a little more specific, the Stoics distinguished between propathos (instinctive reaction) and eupathos (feelings resulting from correct judgment), and their goal was to achieve apatheia, or peace of mind, resulting from clear judgment and a cultivation of equanimity toward the vicissitudes of life.

The Stoics thought that the good life (eudaimonia, often translated as flourishing) consisted in cultivating one’s moral virtues in order to become a good person. The four cardinal virtues recognized by the Stoics were: Wisdom (sophia), Courage (andreia), Justice (dikaiosyne), and Temperance (sophrosyne).

Another crucial Stoic idea, and a corollary of the centrality of virtue in one’s life, is the distinction between preferred and dispreferred indifferents: wealth, health, and other goods are indifferent in the sense that they do not affect one’s moral worth (i.e., one can be a moral person regardless of whether one is sick or healthy, poor or rich, etc.). However, some of these indifferents are helpful in pursuing our goals, and are therefore preferred (health, wealth, good reputation), while others are an hindrance, and are therefore dispreferred (sickness, poverty, bad reputation).

The Stoics made a sharp distinction between things that are up to us and things that are not up to us, what Epictetus called the fundamental rule of life. The first category includes mostly our own conscious and deliberate judgments and opinions, while the second category includes pretty much everything else.

The idea is that peace of mind comes from focusing on what is up to us, rather than wasting emotional energy and resources on what is not up to us. However, do not take this as a counsel for despair about affecting human affairs, or as an excuse for behaving like a doormat. Consider that many prominent Stoics were teachers, statesmen or generals, and they certainly spent a significant amount of energy and resources attempting to change things for the better. But they also accepted that when things didn’t go their way that was it, and there was no sense in dwelling on it or throw a tantrum about it.

Indeed, the Stoics thought of their philosophy as a philosophy of love, and they actively cultivated a concern not just for themselves and their family and friends, but for humanity at large, and even for Nature itself. Stoic philosophers were interested in improving humanity’s welfare, regarding themselves as cosmopolitans, literally members of the universal human family.

Stoic practice. We finally get to the crux of the matter: how, exactly, does one practice Stoicism nowadays? There are a number of modern Stoic practices, or spiritual exercises, inspired by the writings of the ancients. Of course, different combinations will work for different people, but these are the ones I do regularly:

Morning meditation: as soon as I get up I find a quiet, not brightly lit spot in my apartment, seat comfortably, and mentally go over the potential challenges awaiting me during the day ahead, reminding myself about which of the four cardinal virtues I may be called to exercise in response to those challenges.

Also in the morning, I pick one of my favorite sayings from the ancients, read it over a few times, and contemplate it as inspiration.

Hierocles’ Circle: this is a visualization exercise, during which you begin by thinking about your own self, then mentally expand your circle of concern to your family, your friends, people living in your neighborhood and your city, and then gradually to all of humankind, and finally to nature itself. It is a way to remind you that the rest of the world is just as important as you are, and that you should make a habit of being concerned about it.

The View from Above: again mentally picture yourself, but then zoom out to see your city from above, then your country, then the planet, then the solar system, then the local group of stars, then the Milky Way, then the local cluster of galaxies, and finally the whole of the cosmos. The idea is to remind yourself of the proper perspective: what happens to you on a speck of dust afloat in the universe is not, after all, that important.

Premeditatio malorum: this exercise consists in visualizing (not just verbally describing) something bad happening to you, in order to overcome your fear of it and to better prepare yourself in case it actually happens. The specific visualization may be something as simple as anticipating your irritation at fellow riders in the subway (or drivers on the road), to the occurrence of your own death. (I would recommend to reserve the latter for when you feel more confident in your Stoicism, and to do it only occasionally—it can be disturbing). This is similar to exercises in cognitive behavioral therapy designed to overcome one’s fears or anxieties.

Mindfulness about (moral) choices: this is to be done throughout the day, and it is a distinctly Stoic type of mindfulness, as opposed to the Buddhist variety, for instance. The Stoics taught us to live hic et nunc, in the here and now, i.e., paying attention to what we are doing, achieving what some modern psychologists call flow in our actions. But a crucial component of this mindfulness is to consider the fact that your choices, even the apparently trivial ones, very likely have an inextricable ethical component to them, and you should be aware of it and chose according to virtue.

Evening meditation (philosophical journaling): before going to bed, do the reverse of the morning meditation, going through the salient events of the day and asking yourself Epictetus’ three questions: What did I do right? What did I do wrong? What duty’s left undone? It helps to carry out this exercise by writing a personal philosophical diary, in the style of Marcus Aurelius (not meant for publication!). The idea is to learn from what has happened during the day, clear your mind, and go to sleep in peace.

Meet the Stoics.

Zeno of Citium

(c. 334–c. 262 BCE) originated from Citium, currently Cyprus, possibly of Phoenician descent. Zeno was the original founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, which he taught in Athens from about 300 BCE. Based on the moral ideas of the Cynics, Stoicism laid great emphasis on goodness and peace of mind, gained from living a life of virtue in accordance with Nature. It proved very successful, and flourished as the dominant philosophy from the Hellenistic period through to the Roman era.

Chrysippus of Soli

(c. 279–c. 206 BCE) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was a native of Soli, Cilicia (modern southern Anatolia, in Turkey), but moved to Athens as a young man, where he became a pupil of Cleanthes, the second head of the Stoic school. When Cleanthes died, around 230 BCE, Chrysippus became the third head of the school. A prolific writer, Chrysippus expanded the fundamental doctrines of Zeno, which earned him the title of Second Founder of Stoicism.

Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis

(95 BCE, Rome–April 46 BCE, Utica), commonly known as Cato the Younger (or Cato Minor) to distinguish him from his great-grandfather (Cato the Elder), was a politician and statesman in the late Roman Republic, and a follower of the Stoic philosophy. A noted orator, he is remembered for his stubbornness and tenacity (especially in his lengthy conflict with Julius Caesar), as well as his immunity to bribes, his moral integrity, and his famous distaste for the ubiquitous corruption of the period.

Porcia Catonis

(c.70 BCE–June 43 BCE), Porcia of Cato, in full Porcia Catonis filia, Porcia the daughter of Cato, also known simply as Porcia, was a Roman woman who lived in the 1st century BCE. She was the daughter of Marcus Porcius Cato Uticencis and his first wife Atilia. She is best known for being the second wife of Marcus Junius Brutus, the famous assassin of Julius Caesar, and for her suicide, reputedly by swallowing live coals.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca

(also known as Seneca the Younger; c. 4 BCE–CE 65) was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature. He was a tutor and later advisor to the emperor Nero. While he was forced to commit suicide for alleged complicity in the Pisonian conspiracy to assassinate Nero, he may have been innocent. His father was Seneca the Elder, his elder brother was Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus, called Gallio in the Bible, and his nephew was the poet Lucan.

Gaius Musonius Rufus

was a Roman Stoic philosopher of the 1st century CE. He taught philosophy in Rome during the reign of Nero, as a consequence of which he was sent into exile in 65 CE, only returning to Rome under the emperor Galba. He was allowed to stay in Rome when Vespasian banished all the other philosophers from the city in 71 CE, although he was eventually banished again, returning after Vespasian’s death. A collection of extracts from his lectures still survives. He is also remembered for being the teacher of Epictetus.

Epictetus

(CE. c. 55–135) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was born a slave at Hierapolis, Phrygia (present day Pamukkale, Turkey), and lived in Rome until his banishment by the emperor Domitian, when he went to Nicopolis in north-western Greece for the rest of his life. His teachings were written down and published by his pupil Arrian in his Discourses. Epictetus taught that philosophy is a way of life and not just a theoretical discipline. To Epictetus, all external events are determined by fate, and are thus beyond our control; we should accept whatever happens calmly and dispassionately. However, individuals are responsible for their own actions, which they can examine and control through rigorous self-discipline.

Marcus Aurelius

(Latin: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; 26 April 121–17 March 180 CE) was Roman Emperor from 161 to 180. He ruled with Lucius Verus as co-emperor from 161 until Verus’ death in 169. He was the last of the Five Good Emperors, and is also considered one of the most important Stoic philosophers. Marcus Aurelius’ Stoic tome Meditations, written in Greek while on campaign between 170 and 180, is still revered as a literary monument to a philosophy of service and duty, describing how to find and preserve equanimity in the midst of conflict by following nature as a source of guidance and inspiration.

Naturally, there is a lot more to be learned about Stoicism, both by reading the original Stoics and by checking out some of the modern authors. Below is a list of books you may want to consider in order to further pursue your understanding and practice of Stoic philosophy.

Ancient Stoics

The Complete Works: Handbook, Discourses, and Fragments by Epictetus, translated by Robin Waterfield, University of Chicago Press, 2022

Meditations: The Annotated Edition by Marcus Aurelius, translated by Robin Waterfield, Basic Books, 2021.

That One Should Disdain Hardships: The Teachings of a Roman Stoic by Musonius Rufus, introduction by Gretchen Reydams-Schils, Yale University