Armies of the Crimean War, 1853–1856: History, Organization and Equipment of the British, French, Turkish, Piedmontese and Russian forces

By Gabriele Esposito

Lavishly illustrated with over 100 illustrations that detail the composition, organization, uniforms, weapons and equipment of each force.

The Crimean War was the first major European war since the end of the Napoleonic Wars and Britain’s only war on that continent in the century between Waterloo and WW1. When Russia invaded provinces of the Ottoman Empire, the British and French, later joined by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, intervened to limit Russian expansion towards the Black Sea.

Each of the armies contained an eclectic mix of units. The regular European regiments still displayed much of the bright color and finery associated with the Napoleonic era (the British infantry in their scarlet tunics forming the famous ‘thin red line’ at Balaklava for instance), while each also contained a mix of exotic units drawn from across their respective empires. The French fielded Zouaves and Spahis from North and West Africa, not to mention the legendary Foreign Legion; the Ottomans had Tunisians and Egyptians alongside Balkan mountaineers and the infamous Bashi-bazouks; the Russians of course had their Cossacks and the British fielded little-known German, Swiss and Italian mercenaries. Gabriele Esposito details the composition, organization, uniforms and weaponry of each force and illustrates many of them with early black and white photos (this being the first major war for which photography was available), as well as numerous color artworks.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Pen and Sword
• Release date: Nov 23, 2023
• ISBN: 9781399089869

Gabriele Esposito

Gabriele Esposito is an Italian researcher and a long-time student of military history, whose interests and expertise range widely over various periods. He is the author of numerous books on armies and uniforms and is a regular contributor to many specialized magazines in Italy, France, Netherlands and UK. His many previous works include Armies of Early Colonial North America 1607-1713, published by Pen & Sword in 2018.

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Introduction

During the nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire was considered – from a political and diplomatic point of view – as the ‘sick man’ of Europe, having experienced a series of significant internal difficulties. During previous centuries, the Ottomans had been one of the major military powers of the Mediterranean world thanks to the excellent performance of both their army and navy. For more than two centuries, from the fall of Constantinople in 1453 to their second siege of Vienna in 1683, the Turks had expanded their multinational empire by conquering new territories across the Mediterranean. Ottoman-controlled lands comprised a large portion of North Africa’s coastline (from the eastern borders of Morocco to Egypt), the Middle East, the coastline of Arabia, the southern portion of the Caucasus and most of the southern Balkans. During the eighteenth century, the military ascendancy of Austria and Russia in Eastern Europe caused serious problems for the Turks, who had to fight several conflicts against the European powers to keep possession of their Balkan territories. Following a series of Ottoman defeats, it became clear that the Turkish state was entering a phase of long decline: the once-effective and warlike Ottoman troops became no match for European armies, which were now equipped with modern muskets and underwent regular training. Differently from the other powers of the Mediterranean, the Ottoman Empire did not participate in the ‘military revolution’ of the eighteenth century and thus did not modernize its old-fashioned military forces. Consequently, an obvious gap in quality came into being between Turkish soldiers and those of the major European states.

In many ways, the Ottoman Empire of the early nineteenth century was essentially still organized as a medieval Islamic state, its institutions suffering badly from corruption and nepotism. The administrative structure of Turkish territories was becoming increasingly weak due to a chronic lack of funds and the secessionist movements that were developing in various areas of the empire. Austria and Russia – keen to conquer new territories in the Balkans – supported countries like Serbia and Romania in their national uprisings against the Turks. The Balkan revolts, caused by both political and religious factors, became a massive problem for the Ottomans during the first half of the nineteenth century. The emergence of various local nationalities inside Turkish-held territories represented a major problem for the Ottomans, who had previously been able to exert a strong influence over even those lands that had retained a certain degree of autonomy since the early days of Turkish control. In the Balkans, the Turks face revolts by five different nations: Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Moldavia and Wallachia. The latter two states had always enjoyed a high degree of autonomy, having been organized as vassal states of the Ottoman Empire that were collectively known as the Danubian Principalities. The other three states were always garrisoned by Turkish forces. During the first half of the nineteenth century, the Russians twice invaded the Danubian Principalities (in 1811 and 1828) with the objective of reaching Constantinople and thereby gaining direct access to the Mediterranean Sea at the expense of the Ottomans. Since the 1830s, the Ottomans had received strong diplomatic support from Great Britain and France, two powers with no desire to see the emergence of a strong Russian presence in the Mediterranean. On 2 July 1853, recognizing full well that the Turks were in a desperate military situation, the Russians once again invaded the Danubian Principalities, leading to the outbreak of what became known as the Crimean War. The Ottomans were defeated several times within a few months and it seemed that Russian armies were indeed going to conquer Constantinople. Alarmed by these events, Britain and France declared war on Russia in March 1854. What had been a localized conflict was thus transformed into the largest and bloodiest war fought between European powers since the days of the Napoleonic Wars. The main theatre of operations would be the Crimean peninsula in southern Ukraine, hence the conflict’s name. In 1855, the anti-Russian front was also joined by the Kingdom of Sardinia, commonly known as Piedmont, the most powerful state of pre-unification Italy. As a result, five major armies started to be involved in the Crimean War. In this book we will describe in detail the main features of all the military forces that took part in this conflict, including lesser-known units that have never before been studied in English.

Chapter 1

The British Army

Guard and line infantry

All the European armies of the post-Napoleonic nineteenth century comprised a certain number of ‘guard’ units, which were an elite of the military forces of each country. These varied between small bodyguard corps, having a main function of merely escorting their monarch, and larger combatant units with superior training and morale. In Great Britain, the Royal Guard had a very long tradition, consisting of fighting units with a special status which performed peculiar duties. The infantry component of the British Royal Guard consisted of three regiments: the 1st Foot Guards (or Grenadier Guards), 2nd Foot Guards (Coldstream Guards) and 3rd Foot Guards (Scots Guards). The Grenadier Guards had been created in 1665, the Coldstream Guards in 1650 and the Scots Guards in 1642. The backbone of these regiments was the NCOs, professional soldiers who were able to train their men to a very high standard. It was the NCOs’ duty to transform young recruits into battle-hardened veterans, thereby preserving the traditions of the unit. Obedience, endurance, loyalty and pride were the four key factors behind the elite status of the foot guards. Their uniform and equipment had to always be in perfect order, especially when performing guard duties at Windsor or St James’s Palace, the principal homes of the monarch at that time. Most of the common soldiers serving in the Foot Guard regiments came from the militia and thus already had some experience of military life. Under the strict guidance of the NCOs, they were rapidly turned into professional soldiers who were able to face any combat situation. Even more important to the Foot Guards than the NCOs, however, were the officers, who gave the regiments their real and distinctive character. Most officers came from important aristocratic families of land-owners which had long military traditions. They were known as ‘Gentlemen’s Sons’, while Wellington had called them ‘fellows in silk stockings’, but despite their nicknames, they time and again showed their unrivalled military competence and courage. Buying an officer’s commission in the guard infantry regiments was extremely costly, limiting access to the sons of the aristocracy or the upper middle classes. Daily life in time of peace was very expensive for such officers: it was spent in the most prestigious gentlemen’s clubs of London and obliged them to invest large sums of money in order to have the most elegant uniforms and be part of high society.

British privates of the Coldstream Guards photographed upon their return from the Crimean War, which was the first major conflict to receive extensive photographic coverage. They are all wearing the new M1855 double-breasted tunic introduced during the conflict and the massive bearskin headgear that was typical of the British guard infantry. The bearskin came into use in 1815 to celebrate the victory of the British foot guard regiments over the famous French Foot Grenadiers of the Imperial Guard at Waterloo (the distinctive headgear of Napoleon’s foot guardsmen was the bearskin).

The three regiments of Foot Guards each had three battalions, while a single battalion comprised eight field companies and one depot company, plus a small staff. Of the field companies, two had elite status and were known as flank companies because they were deployed on the flanks of the others during combat: they were the grenadier company (heavy infantry) and the light infantry company. Between 1815 and 1854, the three regiments of guard infantry did not see service overseas, but when Britain entered the Crimean War it was decided to form a temporary Brigade of the Guard for service against Russia. This brigade, which would be disbanded at the end of hostilities, consisted of the 3rd Battalion of the Grenadier Guards, the 1st Battalion of the Coldstream Guards and the 1st Battalion of the Scots Guards. Comprising veteran soldiers with great experience, the brigade performed extremely well during the conflict, distinguishing itself in battle at the Alma (1854), Inkerman (1854) and Sevastopol (1855).

British sergeant of the Grenadier Guards with M1855 uniform.

Uniforms of the British Grenadier Guards (from left to right): drummer, sergeant and sapper. The musicians were very easy to recognize on the battlefield due to the additional stripes of coloured lace that they wore on the sleeves and their decorative shoulder wings. The sergeant in the centre is wearing fatigue dress, which includes dark blue pillbox cap and white waistcoat. The red waist-sash was typical of officers and NCOs. The sapper, like the drummer, is wearing the old M1846 tunic with white lace on the buttonholes that remained in use until the new 1855 dress regulations. Note his white leather apron, white leather gauntlet gloves, white badge embroidered on the sleeves and working tools (including a massive axe).

British infantrymen departing for the Crimea. On the left are a sergeant and a private of the line infantry, both wearing the M1844 ‘Albert’ shako. This headgear took its name from the Prince Consort of Queen Victoria. In the centre is a private of the Rifle Brigade with its distinctive dark green dress, while on the right is a private from a Highland regiment.

At the beginning of the Crimean War, the British line infantry comprised three regiments of fusiliers, eighty regiments of line infantry and seven regiments of Highland infantry. This general structure had not changed to any great extent since the days of the Napoleonic Wars. The three regiments of fusiliers, despite their peculiar denomination, had the same standard features as the normal line infantry, but they were some of the most ancient foot corps of the British Army. Originally, fusiliers were infantry tasked with escorting the army’s artillery train, but over time they became standard line infantrymen. The regiments of fusiliers in the British Army by 1854 were the Royal Fusiliers (created in 1685), the Royal Scots Fusiliers (created in 1678) and the Royal Welch Fusiliers (created in 1689). Some of the lowest-numbered and therefore most senior line infantry regiments had three battalions each, but the majority of them consisted of just two battalions. Each of these battalions comprised eight field companies and one depot company, plus a small staff. Of the field companies, two were the flank companies of grenadiers and light infantrymen.

British private of the 28th Regiment of Foot photographed in Crimea. He is wearing an M1846 tunic and pillbox cap. This was the standard appearance of the British line infantrymen during the early phases of the Crimean War.

The Scottish regiments of the British Army could be divided into two main categories: those recruited from the Lowlands and those recruited from the Highlands. The Lowland regiments were part of the British line infantry’s establishment, while the Highland units had a separate establishment and wore distinctive Scottish uniforms. The internal organization of the Highland infantry regiments, however, was the same as the British line infantry units. Generally speaking, the Highlanders were excellent soldiers: sometimes they could be less disciplined than their English comrades, but their courage and fitness were unrivalled. They were drilled to defend a position to the last man and were extremely proud of their regimental traditions. On many occasions they were able to achieve success despite being at a distinct numerical inferiority, and their morale was usually very high. As the Highlanders were used to living in poor and rocky countryside, where conditions were extremely harsh, they could endure hardships of any kind while on campaign, being able to carry on for several days with very little food. They were able to move very rapidly on every kind of terrain, and thus had excellent skirmishing abilities. In combat, the Highlanders were prone to use their bayonets much more frequently than their English comrades, since their fighting spirit was still that of the ancient Celtic warriors; when needed, however, they could deliver very accurate fire against the enemy ranks.

British line infantrymen photographed soon after their arrival in Crimea. The figure on the left has the grey winter greatcoat, while those in the centre have the ‘Albert’ shako and M1846 tunic. The privates on the right are wearing fatigue dress.

British privates of the 19th Regiment of Foot in 1854, all wearing the M1844 ‘Albert’ shako and M1846 tunic. The figure on the left is a fusilier, as indicated by the half-red and half-white pompom of his headgear. The soldier in the centre with white pompom is a grenadier, while that on the right with green pompom is from a light company. Grenadier and light infantry company uniforms had shoulder wings.

Rifles and light infantry

Most of the light infantry and rifle regiments of the British Army were created during the Napoleonic Wars, as until the beginning of the nineteenth century the British infantry comprised just a few light corps, usually recruited from foreigners. The main difference between the light infantry and rifle regiments was in their personal equipment: the light infantry were uniformed in red like the line infantry and were armed with a lighter version of the standard smoothbore musket, whereas the riflemen wore dark green and were armed with rifled carbines that were designed specifically for them. There were two rifle regiments: the 60th Regiment of Foot and the 95th Regiment of Foot. The 60th was raised in 1756, largely as a result of a disastrous defeat suffered by the British line infantry two years beforehand at the Battle of Monogahela in North America during the French-Indian War. This battle saw the ambush of 1,300 British soldiers by a smaller force of French and native Indians, who annihilated their opponents. The British contingent included line infantry from the 44th Foot and 48th Foot, in addition to provincial soldiers of the Virginia Regiment commanded by a young George Washington. The clash was a disaster for the British, who lost over 450 men in the ambush, having proved unable to effectively counter their enemy’s skirmishing tactics.

British officer (left) and private (right) of the 14th Regiment of Foot. They are both wearing a grey greatcoat –