Indian Philosophical Wisdom: Some Glimpses

By Mukta Biswas

The title of the book Indian Philosophical Wisdom: Some Glimpses itself signifies its importance. Indeed, philosophy is involved in every sphere of human life — literature, creative art, culture, etc. The author in her zeal to unravel the precious accumulated wisdom of Indian philosophy delved in its treasure with different approaches — historical, analytical, comparative, etc. An attempt has been made in this book to expound Indian philosophical systems and to analyse critically their logical implications.
This work consists of twenty-seven articles both unpublished and published in journals and from different academic forums aimed towards making a documentation of discussions on various systems of Indian philosophy, Upaniṣadic and Yoga philosophy in particular. This could be a ready reckoner on the subject for young and enterprising students and scholars who possess innate inquisitiveness to unearth the sagacity enshrined in Indian philosophy.

• Language: English
• Publisher: D.K. Printworld
• Release date: Mar 6, 2023
• ISBN: 9788124611890

Book preview

Preface

The great treasure of Indian philosophical wisdom that is inherited through ages is undoubtedly a repository and reservoir of our priceless heritage. The Indian philosophers believe that wisdom is not meant for satisfaction of intellectual curiosity but for leading an enlightened life. As a student of Indian philosophy I have a keen interest to explore the vast and diversified nature of this great treasure.

This book entitled Indian Philosophical Wisdom: Some Glimpses, containing a collection of twenty-seven research articles, is the outcome of my research experience with an endeavour to unravel the knowledge pertaining to Indian philosophy and its relevance in the present-day society. Many of the articles incorporated in this volume have already been published in national as well as international journals, felicitation volumes, etc. while a few of them have been introduced for the first time. Most of the papers are devoted to Upaniṣadic and Yoga philosophy, however, some of them throw light on various systems of Indian philosophy. It is difficult to collect and maintain the journals published hither and thither and as such with a view to keep those research articles intact and making them available for the use of young students, scholars and researchers who are eager to know about the richness of various systems of Indian philosophy and its tradition, this book is a humble attempt.

I am extremely grateful to all the ancient authorities and the modern scholars as well whose works have helped me to explain and substantiate my views in this work. I express my sincere thanks and gratitude to Mr Susheel Mittal of D.K. Printworld, New Delhi who unhesitatingly agreed to publish this work.

I remain ever grateful to my husband Dr Ranjan Kumar Biswas, Professor, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, who has been a constant support and inspiration for me throughout this project.

I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of love and gratitude to my daughter Debaleena Biswas, my son Ritayan Kashyap and my son-in-law Arindam Bhattacharjee for their affection and support. Despite their busy schedule they have stood by my side to help me in the preparation of this work.

Lastly I make an appeal in the following scholastic words:

gacchataḥ skhalanaṁ kvāpi bhavatyeva pramādataḥ।

hasanti durjanāstatra samādadhati sajjanāḥ।।

When a person somehow falls down, the wicked people laugh at him; however, conscientious men express their sympathy. (Inner meaning is: Malicious men exaggerate the faults in a write-up, while the learned persons ignore them.)

Mukta Biswas

Guwahati

27 November 2019

Contents

Preface

Abbreviations

1. Yoga Thoughts in the Sāttvika Purāṇas

2. Universal Approach to Yoga Philosophy Perspectives of Patañjali and Sri Aurobindo

3. Reflection of Sāṁkhya and Yoga Concepts in the Works of Kālidāsa

4. Sāṁkhya and Yoga Views in the Prabodhacandrodaya

5. Śabda: A Sāṁkhya–Yoga Approach

6. Perception (Pratyakṣa)in Īśvarakr̥ṣṇa’s Sāṁkhyakārikā

7. Rasa as a Means of Liberation in the Context of Bhakti

8. Vedānta Philosophy in Mawlana Jalaluddin Rumi’s Works

9. Vijñānabhikṣu’s Concept of Kaivalya in the Light of Yogavārttika

10. Epistemology in Indian Philosophy in the Context of Valid Knowledge

11. Woman in Vedānta Philosophy Contemplation of Swami Vivekananda

12. Concept of Absolute as Perceived by Nimbārka and Śrīpati: A Comparative Note

13. Concept of Liberation in the Light of Śrīpati and Śrīkaṇṭha: A Comparative Study

14. Concept of Liberation: Views of Śrīpati and Nimbārka - A Comparative Study

15. Essence of Upaniṣadic Liberation as Depicted in the Tantraśāstras

16. Bhakti, a Way to Mukti

17. Reflections of Upaniṣadic Thoughts in the Literary and Philosophical Works of Western Scholars

18. Tāntric Culture in Assam

19. Religious Practices of Tāntric Sādhanā in Assam : Vedic Reflections

20. Value-Oriented Education and the System of Learning in the Upaniṣads

21. Spiritual Value-Oriented Education in the Upaniṣads

22. Social Value-Based Education in the Upaniṣads

23. Value-Oriented Education: Sri Aurobindo’s Concept in the Context of Indian Culture

24. Concept of Humanism in the Upaniṣads

25. Upaniṣadic Humanism in Śaṅkaradeva’s Philosophy

26. Compassion in Buddhist Humanism

27. Ahiṁsā in Sanskrit Literature

Bibliography

Index

Abbreviations

1

Yoga Thoughts in the Sāttvika Purāṇas

The Yoga philosophy is one of the oldest systems of Indian philosophy which constitutes an integral part of our rich heritage. It occupies a unique and esteemed place in the system by virtue of its rational and realistic approach towards systematizing the philosophical thinking. Here is an effort to trace out the Yoga thoughts enshrined in the sāttvika Purāṇas. Purāṇas are the inexhaustible treasure house of Indian religion and culture. It deals with every aspect of human life. The philosophical importance of the Purāṇas cannot be underestimated. Almost all the schools of Indian philosophical thoughts are discussed in them. Being so, the philosophy of Yoga is especially connected with the Purāṇas. The Mahāpurāṇas are classified by different scholars in different ways. According to some scholars, classification of the Purāṇas is based on the principle of edification of one of the three deities of Hindu trinity, viz. Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Maheśvara. The functions of these three gods being respectively creation, preservation and destruction, they came to be associated with the three guṇas, viz. rajas, sattva and tamas, respectively. Thus sometimes the Purāṇas came to be classified on the basis of these three guṇas. This classification is found in some Purāṇas themselves. According to the Padma Purāṇa, Bhāgavata, Viṣṇu, Nārada, Garuḍa, Padma and Varāha are sāttvika Purāṇas being dedicated to Viṣṇu.¹ In the list of the Garuḍa Purāṇa, Matsya, Kūrma and Vāyu are included in the sāttvika Purāṇas instead of Nāradīya, Padma and Varāha.² The Skanda Purāṇa (Kedārakhaṇḍa 1) on the other hand enumerates ten Purāṇas describing the greatness of Śiva, four of Brahmā and two each of Devī and Hari. However, in this paper, sāttvika Purāṇas enumerated by the Padma Purāṇa are taken into account. In the sāttvika Purāṇas various yogic concepts are found. Despite many differences in approach, the yogic concepts that find reflections in the sāttvika Purāṇas are highlighted here.

The theory of creation or cosmogony is one of the fundamental topics discussed in the Purāṇas. Out of the fivefold characteristics of the Purāṇas, the sarga (the creation of the universe) is the first and foremost. The sāttvika Purāṇas elaborately discuss about this topic. In the Yoga philosophy prakr̥ti and puruṣa play a pivotal role in the scheme of evolution. In the sāttvika Purāṇas also, prakr̥ti and puruṣa are regarded as the basic factors for the creation of the universe. Like the Yoga system, here also prakr̥ti or pradhāna is described as the material cause of the world and in it all the evolutes are resolved. But they are not the ultimate realities as the Yoga philosophers hold. In the sāttvika Purāṇas it has been said that out of God the world has been created. All the sāttvika Purāṇas accept God as the Ultimate Reality and the whole creation of this universe is the outer form of Him. Again the trinity theory of God is generally mentioned in the sāttvika Purāṇas. Accordingly, the three gods, namely, Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva are regarded as the creator, preserver and destructor of the universe, respectively. The Yoga system also accepts the existence of God. But with the conviction that He is neither the creator nor the destroyer of the universe. The Yoga system postulates the existence of God over and above that of prakr̥ti and puruṣa. According to Yoga, Īśvara is the special puruṣa unaffected by affliction, action, fruitions and dispositions (YS 1.24). God is said to be inactive efficient cause of the evolution of prakr̥ti. Vyāsa does not regard God as the efficient cause but Vācaspati Miśra clearly states that God is the efficient cause of evolution of prakr̥ti into various effects, whose function consists in the removal of barriers for fruition of merits and demerits, which are the effects of prakr̥ti.³ They hold that prakr̥ti is the material cause of the world, while God is its efficient cause in the sense that He disturbs the equilibrium state of the guṇas and removes all barriers to their redistribution into various modes and guides their evolution for the enjoyment and liberation of the puruṣa. God also brings about the conjunction and dissolution of the world. Thus God is described as the perfect self free from all taint of imperfections who supervises the strategy of evolution. Patañjali used the term draṣṭā for puruṣa and dr̥śya for prakr̥ti. Puruṣa is pure consciousness without any movement of any kind but prakr̥ti is impure and changing. When this pure puruṣa identifies itself with prakr̥ti the world comes into being. On the other hand, the sāttvika Purāṇas recognize God as the Ultimate Reality. According to the sāttvika Purāṇas, as they are followers of the Viṣṇu cult, Lord Viṣṇu otherwise called Bhāgavata, Vāsudeva, Kr̥ṣṇa, Hari, Nārāyaṇa, Govinda, etc. is the prime cause of the universe and He is the Absolute (VP I.1.31; II.7.40). Further, the Purāṇas hold that the Supreme Cause is one and He takes the forms of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva for the purpose of creation, preservation and destruction of the universe, respectively (GP 1.4.12). Before creation prakr̥ti lay merged with Supreme Spirit without separate existence. But when the desire for creation was aroused, this Supreme Spirit divided itself into two parts, viz. prakr̥ti and puruṣa (VP 1.2.23-24). Then both of these prakr̥ti (matter) and puruṣa (spirit) united together for the creation purpose by the will of God Viṣṇu. And therefore it is said that prakr̥ti and puruṣa are not independent realities as in the Yoga. They are nothing but two different manifestations of God. However, almost all the sāttvika Purāṇas maintain that these two are the original causes from which all material things are evolved.

The Yoga philosophy holds that the cosmic process of evolution is independent. On the other hand, the sāttvika Purāṇas hold that the cosmic process of evolution is entirely dependent on God. While describing the evolutionary process the Yoga says that sāttvika ahaṁkāra gives rise to manas, rājasa ahaṁkāra to the ten organs and tāmasa ahaṁkāra to the five tanmātras. But according to the Viṣṇu Purāṇa, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa and the Padma Purāṇa the ten gods, namely, Dik, Vāta, Arka, Pracetas, Aśvins, Vahni, Indra, Upendra, Mitra and Prajāpati who preside over the ten organs and manas, emerge from the vaikārika or sāttvika type of ahaṁkāra, so the ten organs naturally are relegated to a different origin and therefore are stated to have come out of the taijasa or rājasa ahaṁkara. The products of tāmasa ahaṁkāra, i.e. the five tanmātras are same as in the Yoga and in the sāttvika Purāṇas.

The Yoga system recognizes twenty-six principles, viz. puruṣa, prakr̥ti, mahat, ahaṁkāra, pañca-jñānendriyas, pañca-karmendriyas, manas, pañca-tanmātras, pañca-mahābhūtas and Iśvara. The sāttvika Purāṇas also mention all the above-mentioned principles of Yoga philosophy. In addition to these principles of Yoga, kāla is enumerated as the twenty-seventh principle in almost all the sāttvika Purāṇas. Some sāttvika Purāṇas regard kāla as a potency of puruṣa whereas the Bhāgavata Purāṇa says that the Lord Himself is designated as kāla.

The common characteristics of prakr̥ti and puruṣa, the two co-present and co-eternal realities of the Yoga system, find reflection in the sāttvika Purāṇas too. According to the Yoga system, prakr̥ti is a material, non-intelligent, independent principle. It is indeterminate, unmediated and undetermined. It is unconscious but active. In the sāttvika Purāṇas also, prakr̥ti and puruṣa are regarded as the basic factors for the creation of the universe. Like the Yoga system, here also prakr̥ti or pradhāna is described as the material cause of the world and has no beginning and in it all the evolutes are resolved. In the Viṣṇu Purāṇa, prakr̥ti is described as the chief principle from which all material things evolve. It is also called pradhāna, the unmanifested cause of the world. The Viṣṇu Purāṇa mentions it as subtle, uniform and sadāsadātmaka (the nature of both existent and non-existent). It is self-sustained, illimitable, undecaying and subtle. The Yoga philosophers describe prakr̥ti as being beyond both the states of existence and non-existence. The existence consists in possessing the capacity of effecting the fulfilment of the objects of the puruṣa. Thus, it does not exist as such. On the other hand, it does not admit of being rejected as non-existent like an imaginary lotus of the sky. It is therefore not non-existent. Hence it is said that prakr̥ti neither exists nor does it non-exist. Vyāsa describes this prakr̥ti or pradhāna as that which is devoid of existence and non-existence, neither real nor unreal, the ultimate principle, in which all the evolutes of the universe, namely, the intellect, the ego, the subtle-elements, the gross elements, the senses of cognition and of action and the mind, merge (VB II.19).

Patañjali uses the term dr̥śya as synonym of prakr̥ti. In the Yogasūtra (II.17-18) it is mentioned that the dr̥śya is of the nature of illumination, activity and inertia; it consists of the elements and the sense organs; it is for the purpose of experience and emancipation. Vyāsa mentions that this is the final merging point of all the evolutes and thus it is called pradhāna.

Regarding puruṣa, Yoga is of the view that puruṣa (self) is a spiritual entity and is different from prakr̥ti, the material cause of the world. Patañjali describes puruṣa as draṣṭā or dr̥śimātra, i.e. to say, it is consciousness (YS II.20). It is śuddha (pure), that is, without any contact with any feature of dr̥śya or the knowable consisting of either what is possibly the subject of an awareness or its object (ibid.). Vyāsa mentions it as sadājñātaviṣayaḥ (ibid.), means constantly aware of things. Puruṣa is apariṇāmī or it has no pariṇāma or change, transformation. Puruṣa is self-luminous, self-complete and self-satisfied. It is free from bondage and liberation.

The puruṣa in its real nature is distinct from the physical body, senses, mind and intellect; but in the empirical state, it is neither quite similar nor quite distinct from them. In this context Vyāsa says that the puruṣa is not quite dissimilar to the elements of prakr̥ti, because, had it been so, it could not perceive the ideas in the form of mental modification.⁴

The word puruṣa is used in the sense of self or spirit in the Viṣṇu Purāṇa. It is called pumān. It is described as pure, eternal, all-pervading, uniform and perfect. Like the Yoga philosophy, the sāttvika Purāṇas also say that puruṣa is avyaya, apariṇāmī, different from prakr̥ti or the matter and also devoid of any qualities. It is devoid of birth, growth and decay. It is omnipresent and is of the nature of supreme knowledge. According to the Viṣṇu Purāṇa, puruṣa or self in its real nature is never bound and never have been subject to change. By a false imposition the puruṣa conceives itself to be the agent in the changes that take place by the natural movement of the guṇas of prakr̥ti. In reality, the prakr̥ti itself is the cause and agent of all and puruṣa is only a passive enjoyer of all pleasure and pains (VP I.1.31; VI.7.22-24).

The word puruṣa is used in two senses in the sāttvika Purāṇas, i.e. jīvātman (the individual self) and paramātman (the transcendental self). According to the Nāradīya Purāṇa,⁵ the puruṣa or ātman is differentiated into twofold, viz. the parā (higher) and the aparā (lower). That which is devoid of the guṇas is called as parā, and the aparā is that which is combined with ahaṁkāra. Again that which is stationed in the heart as the witness in the body, which is constituted by the five elements, is spoken of aparā, while the Supreme Self is known as parā. In the Nārādīya Purāṇa (I.33.58-59) puruṣa is also termed as kṣetrajña because it exists in the body (kṣetra).

Both the Yoga philosophy and the sāttvika Purāṇas describe the guṇas as the constituent elements or components of prakr̥ti, from which the entire universe is created. Sattva, rajas and tamas are called guṇas in their manifested forms and in their unmanifested forms, they are known as prakr̥ti (the primitive matter).

Regarding the nature of the three guṇas, a similar description has been found in both Yoga and in the sāttvika Purāṇas. Thus, in both Yoga and in the sāttvika Purāṇas, sattva is described as illuminating, conducive to pleasure, light and bright. Rajas is activating, conducive to pain and unsteady and stimulating. Tamas is restraining, conducive to delusion, heavy and enveloping. Thus, the universe is an effect of illumination, activity and restrain.

However, regarding the role of the guṇas in the process of creation some minor differences are found between Yoga and the sāttvika Purāṇas. Both Yoga and the sāttvika Purāṇas believe that the entire creation and its process of evolution are carried out by these three guṇas. In the sāttvika Purāṇas, it is commonly found that the three guṇas correspond to the three major deities: Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva. Again, it is said that the creator creates all the phenomena in accordance with the three guṇas. But in the Yoga system, such a description is not found.

Both Yoga and the sāttvika Purāṇas accept mokṣa (liberation) as the ultimate goal of human life. Again, both are of view that ignorance is the cause of bondage and right knowledge is the cause of liberation. However, the concept of liberation of the sāttvika Purāṇas fundamentally differs from the Yoga concept of liberation. According to Yoga, liberation is the viyoga (separation) of puruṣa from prakr̥ti; while according to the sāttvika Purāṇas, liberation means saṁyoga (union) of the individual self with the Supreme Self or God. The sāttvika Purāṇas uphold that liberation consists in reaching the blessed region inhabited by Lord Viṣṇu. Thus, they define the word yoga as the spiritual union with God or Brahman through the concentration of the mind (VP VI.7.31). On the other hand, according to Patañjali, the word yoga does not mean union but spiritual effort to attain perfection through control of the body, mind and senses and through right discrimination between puruṣa and prakr̥ti.

The Yoga offers an elaborate practical discipline as the prerequisite for the attainment of liberation. Patañjali systematized the entire discipline and laid down a comprehensive scheme of eightfold path, known as aṣṭāṅga-yoga or yogāṅga. The aṣṭāṅga-yoga (eightfold path of yoga) is discussed in the Viṣṇu Purāṇa in almost similar to that of the Yoga philosophy and the sāttvika Purāṇas. Observation of the five yamas like ahiṁsā, satya, asteya, brahmacarya and aparigraha, and five niyamas, i.e. śauca, santoṣa, tapas, svādhyāya and īśvara-praṇidhāna are common in both Yoga and the sāttvika Purāṇas. The Bhāgavata Purāṇa advocates the path of Yoga as one of the ways of attaining liberation. The practices of the eightfold yoga are repeatedly mentioned in the Bhāgavata Purāṇa. In the twenty-eighth chapter of the third skandha of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa the process of the eightfold yoga is discussed. However, regarding the number of yama and niyama, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa and Garuḍa Purāṇa have their own views. The Padma Purāṇa assigns that yoga occupies an important position in the path of liberation. It propagates that the affliction caused by ignorance can be overcome by the practice of yoga. In this way, the sāttvika Purāṇas describe the eightfold path of yoga with some variations. However, both Yoga philosophy and the sāttvika Purāṇas have emphasized on the practising of meditation as an infallible means for the attainment of liberation and the complete destruction of the veil of ignorance.

Yogic concepts find reflection in most of the sāttvika Purāṇas. Despite many differences in approach, the sāttvika Purāṇas are closer to the Yoga philosophy on different aspects.

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¹ mātsyamkaurmam tathā laiṅgam śaivam skandam tathaivaca।

āgneyam ca ṣaḍetāni tāmasāni nibodha me।।

vaiṣṇavam nāradīyam ca tathā bhāgavatam śubham।

gāruḍam ca tathā pādmam varāham śubhadarśane।

sāttvikāni purāṇāni vijñeyāni śubhāni vai।।

brahmāṇḍam brahmavaivarttam mārkaṇḍeyam tathaiva ca।

bhaviṣyam vāmanam brāhmam rājasāni nibodha me।।

– Padma Purāṇa (Uttarakhaṇḍa) 163.81-84

² sattvādhame mātsyakaurme tathāhurvāyum cāhuḥ sāttvikam mādhyamamca।

viṣnoḥ purāṇam bhāgavatam purāṇam sattvottamam gāruḍam cāhurāryāḥ।।

– Garuḍa Purāṇa, Brahmakhaṇḍa I.52

³ īśvarasyāpi dharmādhiṣṭhānārtham pratibandhāpanāya eva vyāpāro veditavyaḥ। – Tattvavaiśāradī IV.3

⁴ sa buddher na sarūpa nātyantam virūpa iti। – Vyāsavhāṣya II.20

⁵ ātmānaṁ dvividhaṁ prāhuḥ parāparavibhedataḥ। – Nyāyapariśuddhi I.33.56

2

Universal Approach to Yoga Philosophy

Perspectives of Patañjali and Sri Aurobindo

Yoga philosophy, one of the most developed systems of Indian philosophy, constitutes an integral part of the rich heritage of India. The origin of yoga is untraceable and is lost in antiquity. Yoga postures depicted on seals, stones and statues discovered among the relics of the Indus Valley Civilization indicate that it was prevalent in India even before the advent of Aryans. The word yoga is used in various senses. It means spiritual unification, i.e. the union of the soul with the Absolute, concentration of the mind and complete suppression of the mental modes. In the Amarakoṣa¹ and the Mahābhārata² the word yoga is used in the sense of means. In most of the Vedic texts the concept of yoga has been clearly mentioned. In the R̥gveda (I.34.9) the term yoga has been taken in the sense of yoking or harnessing, achieving the unachieved and the like. The sense of yoking is used in many later Vedic works also, e.g. Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa (XIV.7.1.11), Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa (I.5.1.3) etc. In the Gāyatrī hymn of the R̥gveda, Viśvāmitra meditated upon the glory of the Sun for the illumination of his understanding, bhargo devasya dhīmahi (R̥V III.39.10). Here, it is not only a prayer but an intellectual meditation. The meaning of yoga as meditation is echoed in the Sāmaveda (1.2.10.3) and Śuklayajurveda (I.14) too. With the growth of religious and philosophical ideas in the R̥gveda, the word yoga, which was originally applied to control of steeds, began to be applied to the control of senses. In the Upaniṣadic literature yoga is spoken of as restraint of the senses through which the final realization can be achieved (KaṭhaUp II.6.11). The Śrīmadbhagavadgītā defines yoga as that higher state of mind from where a person is never shaken even by the greatest pain or misery. That state free from all pain and misery is yoga according to Gītā. Yoga is also defined in the Gītā as skill of preserving the equanimity or equality of the mind (II.48). Yoga, according to Patañjali’s definition, is