Sustainability Studies: Environmental and Energy Management

By Bentham Science Publishers

Sustainability Studies: Environmental and Energy Management is a collection of reviews on topics on sustainability with the objective of informing the reader about the environmental impact of industrialization and the ways technology can be implemented to sustain it.
The book presents 11 chapters that focus on the environmental issues, waste management methods, and green chemistry for environmental-friendly production and construction. 2 chapters bring attention to important concepts that are central to sustainability, namely, environmental justice and climate change. The editors have ensured an adequate balance of theoretical concepts and practical information to give readers a broad overview of environmental sustainability. Each chapter is structured into easy-to-read sections that are suitable for readers who are learning about sustainability as part of their educational curriculum.
Sustainability Studies: Environmental and Energy Management is a primer on sustainability and environmental management for students and academics in environmental science, and engineering courses.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Bentham Science Publishers
• Release date: Oct 20, 2003
• ISBN: 9789815039924

Book preview

A New Philosophy of Production

Dragana Nešković Markić¹, *, Predrag Ilić², Ljiljana Stojanović Bjelić¹

¹ Pan-European University Apeiron, Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina

² Institute for Protection and Ecology of the Republic of Srpska, Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Abstract

The growth and development of society on our planet has caused a great consumption of natural resources and, on the other hand, the production of waste and other substances harmful both to human health and to the ecosystem itself. With this way of life, man has moved away from nature. Consequently, a system that functions contrary to natural laws has been established. With the new way of production, it is necessary to return to natural processes and sustainable technologies, clean technologies, and the use of renewable energy sources. The projection of sustainability in the future must be based on resource use restriction, material reuse and other principles of economic and environmental sustainability. This chapter will discuss the new approach to production and the product itself through the consideration of several different possibilities such as circular economy, industrial ecology, ecological economy, blue economy, biomimicry, cradle to cradle, cleaner production and regenerative design. The above-mentioned possibilities in production, design and the product itself aim to ensure that man functions in accordance with natural laws, and that we need to leave nature and the environment in a much better condition than we inherited.

Keywords: Biomimicry, Blue Economy, Circular Economy, Cleaner Production, Cradle to Cradle, Industrial Ecology, Regenerative Design.

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* Corresponding author Dragana Nešković Markić: Pan-European University Apeiron, Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina; Tel: [phone]; E-mail: [e-mail]

INTRODUCTION

A new philosophy of production in the 21st century, or sustainable production, is to create goods and services using processes and technologies that will not create pollution, save energy as well as reduce the pressure on resource depletion. In addition, this production must be economically sustainable, safe, and secure for employees, the local community, and consumers. Sustainable production should reduce the consumption of raw materials and energy per unit of product, as well as improve the quality of the environment and social well-being [1].

Since the 1970s, the management and control of pollutant emissions have been based on the exhaust pipes or chimneys, the so-called end-of-pipe technology. In any case, this approach to environmental pollution control has yielded results in many aspects, but the regulations have not been aimed at preventing pollution or impacts in the future. New technologies deal with the cause of the problem, as opposed to end-of-pipe technologies that deal with symptoms. It often happened that pollution was transferred from one environmental medium to another (water, air, land) or transferred to other geographical areas and other countries. This has resulted in an increasing search to solve problems by changing the production process, rather than treating pollution at the end of the production process.

If we look at the specific strategies of companies, we can determine the focus on disposal and recycling technologies, which are mainly end-of-pipe technologies. These technologies are supplemented to the original production process without introducing major changes in the technical system, where the existing technology is supplemented with new components in order to avoid or reduce the negative impact on the environment. So, we have a supplementation of the existing technological process with a filtration and purification plant, disposal method, and recycling technology [2]. End-of-pipe technologies essentially continue production without changing the existing technical system, i.e., stabilizing the existing technological system with correcting possible negative impacts on the environment [3].

CIRCULAR ECONOMY

Beginning with the industrial revolution, the global economy is characterized by a significant model, the so-called linear model of production and consumption. The linear model of economics operates on the principle of take, make, use and discard, according to which all products that man no longer needs end up as waste [4]. It is a well-established practice that products are created at low prices, used and discarded. This approach in a linear economy results in unsustainable extraction of natural resources and the accumulation of pollution [5]. If resource consumption continues at this pace, by 2050, it would take the equivalent of over two planets to support this development and it would not be possible to achieve the better standard of living it aspires to. This approach, from the aspect of economics, has initiated deliberation about the unsustainability of such a model, that is, the unsustainability of modern civilization. On the other hand, the resources on Earth are not infinite and are becoming increasingly endangered. The growth and development of technology have led to a reduction in production and sales prices, to the growth of the living standard of the population, but also to an uncontrolled imbalance between the economic and ecological systems [6]. At the end of the 1970s, we moved toward the direction of extending the life of products as well as reducing the amount of waste through the introduction of a new model of the so-called circular economy.

Geissdoerfer et al. [7] define the Circular economy as a regenerative system in which resource input and waste, emission, and energy leakage are minimized by slowing, closing, and narrowing material and energy loops. The circular economy, with its 3R principles of reducing, reusing and recycling material clearly illustrates the strong linkages between the environment and economics [8]. The circular economy strives to operate on a product-waste-product principle, i.e. to ensure sustainable resource management, extend product life, reduce waste and use renewable energy sources. With this new approach, waste is almost non-existent, i.e. it has been reduced to a minimum.

As shown in Fig. (1), at each stage in the circular economy, the aim is to reduce costs and dependence on natural resources, as well as to reduce the amount of waste. This model replaces the end of life concept with restoration, the use of renewable energy sources, and the elimination of the use of toxic chemicals. The value of products and materials is maintained for as long as possible and waste is minimized. The product is produced, used, and after reaching its end i.e. its service life, the resources it contains are reused, that is the process returns to the beginning. For example, factory waste becomes valuable in another process, products can be repaired, reused or upgraded instead of being thrown away.

Fig. (1))

Linear and circular economy [9].

The circular economy aims to increase the quality of life of citizens, with more efficient use of resources, increased competitiveness, creation of new jobs through the development of new technologies, innovations, designs, and modular products produced in a way that can be easily supplemented and processed, and a new way of organizing in companies. Companies that accept the circular model of the economy imply business in terms of benefits not only for society and the environment but also for consumers and investors themselves.

The linear take-and-dispose model relies on large amounts of readily available resources and energy and as such is increasingly unsuitable for the real environment where it operates. In the long run, the costs of solving various environmental problems are increasing, and large amounts of resources are consumed leading to the lack of individual resources [10]. The circular economy is moving toward zero waste and changes in product and packaging design and encouraging the idea that waste can become a resource again. The transition from a linear to a circular economy is a strive for all economic actors to spend as few natural resources as possible, rather than going in the direction of regeneration through recycling, the introduction of innovative technologies, etc.

The transition from a linear to a circular economy requires changes in the following segments [11]:

Organization of the company,

Education,

Innovation in technologies,

Creating an appropriate institutional framework and infrastructure,

Designing new products,

Design, implementation and development of new business and market models,

Development of waste management system,

Changing consumer habits and encouraging the development of new forms of behavior,

Development of new products that support the concept of the circular economy,

Defining and proclaiming new policies.

We view the circular economy as a complex holistic approach that is made up of several development directions: Industrial Ecology, Ecological Economy, Blue Economy, Biomimicry, Cradle-to-Cradle, Cleaner Production, Regenerative Design, Performance Economy (Fig. 2).

Fig. (2))

Key terms closely related to the circular economy [12].

A good example of the application of the circular economy is the Dutch textile company Dye Coo. As is well known, the textile industry uses large amounts of water and chemicals, especially in countries where a large number of these factories are located, such as China, India, Bangladesh, Vietnam and Thailand. Textile company Dye Coo has developed a new innovative technology for dyeing textile materials with carbon dioxide using high pressure. With this dyeing technology, the dye penetrates very well to the depth of the fabric, affecting the non-use of water and other chemicals. Carbon dioxide evaporates and is recycled again. This technology is highly efficient and completely circular. Carbon dioxide is a by-product of other industrial processes and is used again in other dyeing series [13].

Industrial Ecology

Industrial ecology arose from the desire to better understand the impacts of industrial systems on the environment. The first step in industrial ecology is to identify the impacts of industrial systems on the environment and the second step is to implement measures to reduce and minimize these impacts. Industrial ecology can be defined as a scientific field that studies physical, chemical and biological interactions within and between industrial and ecological systems.

The industrial symbiosis is an important aspect of industrial ecology such that wastes, by-products and energy exchanges between different industries for sustainability are practiced. Industrial ecology was established and implemented by developed countries so as to achieve satisfactory levels of sustainability [14].

The industrial ecology is a new approach to industrial product and process design through the application of sustainable production strategies, i.e. the industrial system is not observed separately from the surrounding systems. Industrial ecology optimizes the overall material cycle from raw materials to finished materials, products, waste and ultimately disposal.

Research in the field of industrial ecology includes the following activities [15]:

A systematic approach to the interaction between industrial and ecological systems,

Study of energy and matter flows, their transformation into products and by-products, waste materials through industrial and natural systems (industrial metabolism),

Multidisciplinary approach,

Orientation towards the future,

Changes from linear (open) processes to closed or cyclic processes where waste from one sector is used as a raw material or input to another process,

Reducing the impact of industrial systems on natural ecosystems,

Impact on the harmonious integration of industrial activities into ecological systems,

Ideas for creating an industrial ecosystem based on more efficient and sustainable natural ecosystems,

Identification and comparison of industrial and natural systems, which indicate the area of potential studies and activities.

Application of Industrial Ecology

Practical application of industrial ecology–KalundborgEco-Industrial Park in Denmark. The Eco-Industrial Park is an industrial symbiosis between numerous companies in and around the city of Kalundborg (Denmark), which has been developing over a period of 25 years. This project is not the result of systematic planning, but was gradually realized and upgraded through the cooperation of surrounding companies. This Eco-Industrial Park is based on the exchange of waste and energy between a thermal power plant, an oil refinery, a pharmaceutical factory and a gypsum factory. Excess heat from the thermal power plant is distributed to households and fish farms. Biowaste from fish farms is used as a fertilizer in agriculture, while excess steam from the power plant is used in a pharmaceutical factory. The gypsum factory uses SO2 from the waste gases of the thermal power plant. Part of the solid waste is used in the construction of roads [15]. Fig. ( 3) presents the functioning of the Eco-Industrial Park in Denmark.

Analytical tools used in industrial ecology are [16]:

Material flow analysis/Substance flow analysis

Life-cycle assessment, and

Environmental design

Fig. (3))

Scheme of the Eco-Industrial Park Kalundborg, Denmark [15].

Analysis of Material Flows

Material Flow Analysis (MFA) is a method used to describe, investigate and evaluate the metabolism of anthropogenic and geogenic systems. It is a typical analytical tool based on material balance [17]. The basic characteristic of MFA is that the materials behave in accordance with the law of mass maintenance, i.e. everything that enters the system must also leave the system. In other words, the matter cannot disappear, it can only transform and leave the system in the form of emissions or other by-products.

MFA is a systematic assessment of material flows and stocks within a system defined in space and time [18]. It connects the sources, paths and transitional or final dispositions of the material. MFA can be implemented at two levels, the level of substances and the level of goods. If we are working at the level of substances, then we are talking about Substance Flow Analysis (SFA), and MFA regulates the level of goods, i.e. materials.

The first basic principles of MFA preservation of matter, i.e. that the input is equal to the output, were postulated by Greek philosophers 2000 years ago. One of the first reports on the analysis of material flows dates back to the 17th century. The Venetian physician SantorioSantorio (1561-1636) researched human metabolism, that is, he was the first to develop a new system balance method 400 years ago. The French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794), 200 years after Santorio, proved that the total mass of matter does not change by chemical processes [19, 20].

Brunner and Rechberger [20] presented the terms defined by the MFA methodology: substance, product, material, process, flows and fluxes, stocks, transfer coefficients, system, and system boundaries.

The substance is defined as the material from which goods or products are composed. They can be atoms (C, Pb) or compounds (CO2, H2O). Products are defined as substances or mixtures of substances (wood, waste, automobile).

Process means the transport, transformation, storage, or change in the value of a substance or product. The process can be an activity (incineration), plant (incinerator, landfill, composting plant), service (waste collection), or environmental medium (atmosphere, hydrosphere, soil) [21]. Processes are related to flows (mass per unit time) or fluxes (mass per unit time through a unit area). Flows or fluxes of materials entering the process are called input streams, while those leaving the process are called output streams.

Due to the law of conservation of matter, MFA results can be controlled by a simple material balance, comparing all inputs, stocks, and process results [22]. The balance between products and/or substances throughout the process taking into account inputs and outputs is shown in the following formula:

Where stocks are defined as the accumulation or degradation of materials in the process.

System boundaries play an important role in MFA design, because the processes within the system must be balanced, and must be defined in space and time.

MFA can be applied at different levels. It can be applied at the international, national, regional, community level, enterprise level, as well as at anthropogenic systems.

A large number of studies for SFA have been analyzed for a large number of substances, for different geographical areas and under time constraints. Analysis of phosphorus flow in Switzerland was investigated by Brunner et al. [23], and in China by Li et al. [24] and Yuan et al. [25]. The metabolism of the city of Paris and its region was investigated by Barles [26].

Life Cycle Assessment

In the late 1960s, there was a need for more responsible management of industrial processes, as there was a growing awareness that resources were limited as well as the growing pressure of environmental pollution. Therefore, the development of a tool that would deal with the assessment of the environmental impact of products on the environment - Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), was approached. LCA is a tool for making decisions about the manufacture or quality of a product with the identification of its impact on the environment, having in mind the entire life cycle of the product, i.e. the process of analyzing materials, energy, emissions and waste produced by the product, throughout the life cycle from the beginning, i.e. starting from the resources and exploitation of materials to the final disposal [27]. Life cycle analysis has proven to be a useful tool in the waste management sector.

The Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) was the first organization to initiate the harmonization of the LCA methodology, which was later grouped into ISO standards. The ISO standard [28] and the ILCD manual (The International Reference Life Cycle Data System) [29] regulate LCA implementation in more detail. ISO 14040 [28] defines four steps in an LCA study (Fig. 4).

Defining the goal and subject,

Life cycle inventory analysis (data collection phase),

Assessment of the impact of the life cycle on the environment,

Interpretation of life cycle results.

Fig. (4))

LCA framework according to ISO 14040 [28].

Defining the goal and subject - in this phase, in addition to the goal and subject, the boundaries of the system (spatial and temporal) are set and the functional unit is defined. Defining a functional unit is an important basis for the normalization of input and output data in order to compare the results of the LCA study.

Analysis of Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) - refers to the collection, calculation and analysis of product system inputs and outputs. In this phase, all material and energy inputs and outputs are determined throughout the entire life cycle of the product or service. In LCA studies, data are mostly used from literature sources or based on databases such as Ecoinvent, EASEWASTE, SimaPro, GaBi, etc. [30].

Evaluation of Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) involves classifying LCI inputs and outputs into specific categories and inputs and outputs for each category based on indicators. The selection of impact categories is carried out on the basis of the set goal and subject, and there are appropriate indicators for each impact category. There are several LCIA methods such as EDIP, ReCiPe, USEtox, IPCC, etc. The impact categories are divided into two groups: standard impact categories and human health impact categories. The following categories are classified as standard impact categories: global warming potential, acidification, eutrophication, nutrient enrichment, ecotoxicity, and photochemical ozone formation. The following categories are classified into the categories of effects on human health: toxicity to humans (via water, air, and soil), toxicity of carcinogens and non-carcinogens to humans.

Thus, for example, global warming is a category of impact, and the indicator is the cumulative value of greenhouse gases released, which are expressed in terms of CO2 equivalent. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has defined a model based on which the global warming potential is calculated via CO2 equivalent. Gases CO2, CH4 and N2O are gases that contribute to global warming, but in different ratios 1 CO2 = 25 CH4 = 298 N2O [31].

Interpretation of life cycle results - is a procedure for identifying, verifying, qualifying and evaluating information