Sustainable and Circular Management of Resources and Waste Towards a Green Deal

Sustainable and Circular Management of Resources and Waste Towards a Green Deal highlights the importance of resource recovery, phosphorus management, climate action, clean energy transition, and a circular economy. The world is facing significant challenges, including climate disruption, environmental changes, pollution, and population explosion. Sustainable management of finite natural resources within the carrying capacity of the bio-geo-hydrosphere is the crux of transforming the global economy for a sustainable future. Moreover, keeping raw materials in circulation as long as possible and minimizing the amount of waste generated has grown in significance as a part of transitioning to a circular economy (CE) model.

• Introduces innovative solutions in green energy transition
• Provides case studies as examples of a circular economy implementation in selected sectors of the economy, including water and wastewater, raw materials, and construction
• Suggests actions to counteract climate change and its consequences for people and the planet

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Feb 10, 2023
• ISBN: 9780323952798

Book preview

Section 1

Strategies for implementation of Green Deal

Outline

Chapter 1 Achieving sustainable development goals via green deal strategies

Chapter 2 Farm to fork: sustainable agrifood systems

Chapter 3 Global directions for the green deal strategies—Americas, Europe, Australia, Asia, and Africa

Chapter 1

Achieving sustainable development goals via green deal strategies

Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad¹, Marzena Smol² and Helena Freitas³,    ¹School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad (an Institution of Eminence), Hyderabad, Telangana, India,    ²Division of Biogenic Raw Materials, Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Cracow, Poland,    ³Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, Coimbra, Portugal

Abstract

The European Union (EU) green deal initiative in 2019 was aimed at transforming the EU’s economy for a sustainable future. It is mainly meant to tackle climate change, emphasizing the following:

1. A zero pollution ambition for a toxin-free environment.

2. Climate neutrality, switching from fossil fuels to nontraditional energy sources, increasing the EU’s climate ambition for 2030 and 2050.

3. Limiting greenhouse gas emissions in the context of combating global warming.

4. Mobilizing industry for a clean and circular economy (CE).

5. Supplying clean, affordable, and secure energy.

6. Large-scale job creation in the field of clean energy.

7. Circular management of resources and waste (cash from trash).

8. Building and renovating in an energy- and resource-efficient way.

9. Accelerating the shift to sustainable and smart mobility.

10. From Farm to Fork: designing a fair, healthy, and environment-friendly food system.

11. Preserving and restoring ecosystems and biodiversity.

12. Soil–agricultural innovations.

In 2015 the United Nations adopted 17 sustainable development goals (see Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, United Nations, 2015). As of writing this program includes 169 Targets, 3108 Events, 1307 Publications, and 5487 Actions globally. Within these goals appear several phrases that relate to global sustainable development. The Green Deal is a key element of the EU strategy to implement the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) pertinent to reducing air, water, and soil pollution, reducing the loss of biodiversity and climate change impact, while ensuring the sustainable use of energy and natural resources and the well-being of citizens.

A CE is the key agenda in the European Green Deal (EGD) Strategy. The EU emerged as a global leader in climate action. European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen, declared it to be a Man On The Moon Moment, as the EGD aspires to provide a comprehensive framework to become the first continent to cut its emissions to net zero by 2050. Thus the EU Green Deal is a key strategy for implementing the UN SDGs. The proposed EGD has several elements that will lead toward the final goal of a climate-neutral continent.

Keyword

Sustainable development goals; green deal; global warming; circular economy; toxin-free environment; EU common agricultural policy

1.1 Introduction

In 2015 the United Nations adopted 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (see Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, United Nations, 2015). As of now this program includes 169 Targets, 3108 Events, 1307 Publications, and 5487 Actions globally. Within these goals appear several phrases that relate to global sustainable development. The Green Deal (European Commission, 2019a) is a key element of the European Union (EU) strategy to implement the United Nation’s SDGs pertinent to reducing air, water, and soil pollution, reducing the loss of biodiversity and climate change impact, while ensuring the sustainable use of energy and natural resources and the well-being of citizens.

The circular economy (CE) is the key agenda in the European Green Deal (EGD) strategy (Belmonte-Ureña et al., 2021). The EU emerged as a global leader in climate action (the milestones of the ambitious program are shown in Table 1.1). The European Commission (EC) President Ursula von der Leyen declared it to be a Man On The Moon Moment as the EGD aspires to provide such a comprehensive framework to allow it become the first continent to cut its emissions to net zero by 2050. Thus the EU Green Deal is a key strategy for implementing the UN SDGs. The proposed EGD has several elements that Fig. 1.1 will lead toward the final goal of a climate-neutral continent. The evolution of sustainability science is shown in Table 1.1 and Fig. 1.2.

Table 1.1

EC, European Commission; EU, European Union.

Figure 1.1 Evolution of sustainability science.

Figure 1.2 The priority areas and thematic pillars of the European Green Deal. Redrawn based on European Green Deal Strategy (2019).

Therefore, the 1st International Conference on Strategies toward Green Deal Implementation—Water and Raw Materials held in December, 14–16, 2020, Krakow, Poland presented the issues of climate change and ways to prevent it through innovative solutions (technological, environmental, economic, and social) that can be implemented under the Green Deal Strategies. Transfer of knowledge and good practices can accelerate the implementation of the Green Deal Strategies, and through this contribute to improving the quality of the environment and achieving a balance between human activities and nature.

Climate change and environmental degradation present an existential threat to the world. In the face of the increasing number of people in the world, as well as the progressive degradation of the environment caused by human activity, taking action to protect the environment is a priority. Therefore, there is high importance for the implementation of the Green Deal strategies, which aim to reduce climate change. They are crucial in the pursuit of sustainability, in which environmental, economic, and social aspects are integrated to ensure the survival of present and future generations.

The parallel crises of global warming, loss of biodiversity (also referred to as the sixth mass extinction), pollution of land, freshwater, and oceans and excessive use of materials, while social cohesion and inequality are being exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, point to an opportunity: for new jobs, values, and equal chances.

European food must remain safe, nutritious, and of high quality. It must be produced with a minimum impact on nature. To achieve success in implementation of the EGD, there is the need to implement measures to preserve soil quality and limit soil contamination. Healthy food from healthy soils is one of the objectives of the Farm to Fork strategy and should be one of the slogans of the EGD. Introducing innovative agricultural practices together with new technology can be the way forward, as envisaged by the mission on soil health and food within the Horizon Europe framework program for research beginning in 2021.

1.2 The 2030 Agenda

The adoption by the United Nations General Assembly in September 2015 of the Agenda for Sustainable Development, known as the 2030 Agenda, and the Objectives of Sustainable Development, is an ambitious political agenda and includes a set of 17 objectives that UN member countries must take as a benchmark for defining their national agendas, and whose success depends on a broad mobilization and commitment of society. It emerges with a transformative dynamic of the world and promoter of peace, eradicating hunger and poverty, reducing inequalities, and constituting an extraordinary opportunity for all communities and social movements that are encouraged to respond to the problems that most affect humanity. The 2030 agenda calls on all public and private institutions, and society in general, as an action plan for people, for the planet, and for prosperity, identifying the eradication of poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, as the greatest global challenge and an indispensable condition for sustainable development.

The biggest difference lies in its universal character, in the local dimension of this universality and in the anchoring of human rights, which is evident in particular in the firm idea that we do not want to leave anyone behind, in a clear orientation and in the express will to reduce inequalities within and between countries. The difficulty will be to ensure the credibility of the agenda, and it is mainly in the capacity that societies to reveal for the implementation of effective and fully recognized initiatives and actions.

1. The 2030 agenda also calls for the involvement and commitment of business organizations, recognizing and invoking their long experience in promoting sustainable development. But this is also the way to convene other organizations to promote these objectives, with respect to and in the contexts in which they operate, in order to contribute to sustainability through social responsibility.

The reality is very clear today and it is increasingly users and the public that demand compliance with fundamental values, respect for human rights, moral integrity and ethics, the prevention of and fight against corruption, and respect for the rights of information for the consumer. On the other hand, we all want peace, security, happiness, and well-being for all; and we all want air and water quality, edible food, respect for differences and individual preferences, freedom of thought, awareness, and expression. The organizations have to address all these issues because these are the concerns and expectations of society.

The time has come to take over and integrate these issues into governance and management models. The time has come to take responsibility for the impact of decisions and the activities of organizations. We are experiencing a growing and global movement that cannot be ignored, and that has to extend to all kinds of organizations and not just to companies. Society and its organizations now have responsibilities in realizing the SDGs. Public policies cannot continue to ignore this dimension and limit their action to the green label, alongside humanitarian, educational, health, and cultural relations.

The SDGs represent an opportunity for us to build and support initiatives that can provide a better life for all on a balanced and respectful planet and for all forms of life. We all think we have that right, but above all we all have that responsibility, and we all have to take that responsibility.

Today we are being called to find answers to various problems, seeking to understand the limits that the planet imposes on us with regard to the availability of resources and their limits.

We are challenged

a. to find solutions to make ecosystems more resilient. We are encouraged to promote environmental citizenship and commitment to the planet and the well-being of its inhabitants.

b. to minimize threats to the planet, limit sources of pollution, reduce the dramatic extinction of species, and preserve a diversity of landscapes to ensure and strengthen connectivity between people and between them and nature.

c. to reduce inequalities within and between nations in accessing the planet’s resources, ensuring that all generations, current and future, can fulfill their basic needs.

Environmental sustainability is now a cross-cutting challenge and calls us all to a global agenda that can truly transform the world, focusing on the values of ecology, equality, peace, and collective well-being.

1.3 The European Green Deal—driving force of a more cohesive continent

The European Green Agreement and the policy package announced in December 2019 aimed at making Europe the first carbon-neutral continent in 2050. It identifies targets to reduce carbon emissions, including the increase in the productivity of forests, transformation of agriculture, support for sustainable mobility, or the strengthening of recycling and renewable energy. Europe is thus committed to a model of competitive and sustainable development, which is the driving force of a more cohesive continent.

European agricultural production is one of the sectors that depends on imports, and it will not be possible to continue to delay a greater demand for imports of agricultural products from countries whose environmental legislation is less restrictive than that of Europe. It is not acceptable to condone a greener Europe while allowing imports from countries abusing pesticides and herbicides whose application is strictly limited or prohibited in the EU. The European ecological agreement should impose a standard based on known impacts and establish effective commitments—among other things, ensuring a reduction in the use of fertilizers and pesticides, and avoiding deforestation and the resulting emissions.

It is clear that the EU’s dependence on imports of agricultural goods is also a result of decades of policies and initiatives that have reduced the area of cultivated soils. In recent decades, EU common agricultural policy (CAP) reforms have allocated subsidies based on area, not production, with the clear objective of reducing overall food production. Some of the abandoned land—with less biodiversity or nonagricultural uses, for example—could now be returned to agriculture in order to reduce agricultural pressure in the tropics. These options will naturally have to be weighed against other relevant uses, with a view to safeguarding the interest of communities and valuing the goods and services provided by ecosystems.

Part of agricultural processing in Europe will proceed inexorably by encouraging lower consumption of meat and dairy products, progressively harmonizing the food system, health, and global protection, and reducing the need for agricultural imports. This transition will not be possible without respect for endogenous dynamics and without the use of strong educational programs capable of sensitizing collective awareness, demonstrating the link between consumption options and environmental degradation. Environmental costs must be included in the cost of food, but they cannot generate food insecurity or increase unequal access to food. In any case, this orientation now involves other issues—also of a moral and ethical nature—in relation to development in those countries that have to change their development models.

Increased domestic production can be cost-effective by reducing carbon storage in forests, affecting biodiversity, and increasing agricultural pollution in Europe. In fact, these are doubts that persist in relation to the CAP, which is criticized for increasing these same impacts and not going far enough in aligning with the environmental objectives of the ecological agreement. However, EU food production systems incorporate more and more technology and can be more efficient by designing new agricultural production systems. Such systems may include complex mixed crops (e.g., permaculture), systems that traditionally suffer from being very laborious and demanding in terms of management, but with great interest in terms of plant nutrition, fertility, soil erosion, and plant health management. New technologies and innovative solutions are also in sight to help develop more sustainable practices built on an integrated view of territories and land use.

The Green Deal (European Commission, 2019a) is a key element of the EU strategy to implement the United Nation’s SDGs, pertinent to reducing air, water, and soil pollution, reducing the loss of biodiversity and climate change impact, while ensuring the sustainable use of energy and natural resources and the well-being of citizens. A key objective of the Green Deal is to provide a holistic policy framework for achieving carbon neutrality by 2050 (European Commission, 2019a). A high level of ambition in the Green Deal to tackle complex and interlinked environmental, economic, and societal challenges requires the integration of current policies and the exploitation of potential synergies and trade-offs. Key priorities for restoring terrestrial and aquatic environments in the Green Deal include designing environment-friendly food production systems, preserving and restoring ecosystems and their services, including biodiversity, and a zero pollution ambition for a toxin-free environment. Agricultural production is recognized as an important source of air, water, and soil pollution, contributing to a loss of biodiversity and climate change, and consuming excessive amounts of natural resources. To enable a sustainable transition of the agricultural sector and implementation of the goals of the Green Deal (Bieroza et al., 2021) the Farm to Fork (European Commission, 2020b) strategy has been launched and a revised CAP will be introduced in 2023. The Farm to Fork (F2F) (see Chapter 2) strategy recognizes the negative impact of agricultural production on the climate and environment, aiming to improve the health of both citizens and environment by a shift to sustainable food systems. The strategy aims to achieve 50% reductions in pesticide and antibiotics use and 50% reduction in nutrient losses by 2030 (Table 1.2).

Table 1.2

aClimate change mitigation, including reduction of GHG emissions from agricultural practices, as well as maintenance of existing carbon stores and enhancement of carbon sequestration.

bClimate change adaptation, including actions to improve resilience of food production systems, and animal and plant diversity for stronger resistance to diseases and climate change.

cProtection or improvement of water quality and reduction of pressure on water resources.

dPrevention of soil degradation, soil restoration, improvement of soil fertility and of nutrient management.

eProtection of biodiversity, conservation or restoration of habitats or species, including maintenance and creation of landscape features or nonproductive areas.

fActions for a sustainable and reduced use of pesticides, particularly pesticides that present a risk to human health or environment.

gActions to enhance animal welfare or address antimicrobial resistance.

Source: Adapted from Bieroza, M.Z., Bol, R., Glendell, M., 2021. What is the deal with the Green Deal: will the new strategy help to improve European freshwater quality beyond the Water Framework Directive? Sci. Total Environ. 148080.

1.4 Europe in the leadership of the environmental agenda

About a year after the commitment of the 27 states of the EU to achieve carbon neutrality in 2050, the EC presented a package of proposals called Fit to 55, representing the first major initiative of the European ecological agreement and a priority of the mandate of Ursula von der Leyen. The set of proposals for a greener economy covers areas such as renewable energy, energy efficiency, building construction and rehabilitation, land use, and emissions trading.

The EC promises an environmental revolution and at an extraordinarily fast pace: Europe aims to reduce its CO2 emissions by 55% by 2030 (compared to 1990 figures). With the enthusiasm and political determination from Frans Timmermans, the Commission intends to end sales of hybrid, petrol, or diesel cars in 2035, a timetable still being challenged by countries. To speed up the electrification of the car, member states will have to implement charging stations more rapidly. The aim is to make charging electric vehicles and refueling hydrogen for heavy vehicles as easy as fueling a traditional fuel vehicle—the EU has set a target of one million charging points for electric vehicles by 2025 and three million by 2030.

The European territories, on land and at sea, will be involved in the green dynamics through the integration of the European carbon market and the imposition of polluter pays. Aviation, in particular for flights in EU, and construction to accelerate thermal renewal, will also be the target of this expansion of the carbon market. The latter, now focused on some heavy industries, will also be revised to increase the price per ton of carbon and lower quotas. A tax overhaul is also planned to strengthen the attractiveness of renewable energy and penalize fossil fuels.

Brussels intends to approve the package in 2023, but differences between member states are already evident and will tend to intensify. The extension of the carbon market to buildings Germany’s intention, worries most countries that have the economic and social impact of the effort on tenants and landlords. In France, the rise in the price of petrol is already raising fears of a return of the yellow vests. The scale of carbon market reform and energy taxation also shows divergences. West and Central Europe are afraid to face too high and too fast demands, which would be very negative for economic recovery. The problems and tensions worsen with the role attributed to nuclear energy and gas in the energy transition.

1.5 The opportunity generated by the new European agreement

The European agreement represents a unique opportunity to accelerate the ecological transition by encouraging green innovation, strategic investments, knowledge, and capacity building, in a programmatic action with the potential to drive a profound systemic transformation of production, consumption, behavior, and lifestyles, while respecting planetary boundaries. Europe finally takes on a broad political agenda to lead the paradigm shift and support initiatives across geographies.

The European agreement puts safeguarding nature at the heart of the growth strategy by promoting the restoration of ecosystems and the enhancement of their benefits. This encourages solutions that contribute to mitigating climate risks and to greater resilience of society, stimulating innovation and producing multiple benefits, guaranteeing the long-term resilience of the food, climate, and health systems. In the Portuguese case, priority is justified, among others, for the ecological restoration of river systems at basin level, equating to dam removal scenarios, in line with increased investment in renewable sources of lower impact, such as wind and solar.

The European Agreement aims at the transition to sustainable agricultural production and consumption. Agriculture has great potential for sustainable transformations through local food production, biodiversity conservation, risk reduction, the CE, and innovation. Community food safety initiatives design solutions for sustainable and healthy food systems, improving diet and health quality. Extensive agriculture, organic farming, and good environmental management practices improve soil health and water quality, limit the excessive use of agrochemicals and diversify agricultural landscapes. Agriculture is also essential for the environmental and social sustainability of rural areas where family farming prevails.

The European agreement also encourages the qualification of public space in order to make it healthier and more resilient to risks, providing support for prosperity and long-term well-being. Communities with a functional and robust social infrastructure, including schools, libraries, hospitals, and social housing, are more resilient to climate extremes and generally to risk. The impacts of climate change and the degradation of natural systems increasingly affect people’s health and well-being (e.g., heat waves, floods, vector-borne infectious diseases and water, increased morbidity and mortality from air pollution and mental illness)—the most vulnerable are the most affected. This moment is also an opportunity to impose a global health policy (more health in public policies and more environment in health policies), valuing greater planetary harmony between human communities and natural ecosystems.

The European agreement calls for strong investment in digital transformation for sustainability. Sustainability planning requires information and easy access to high-quality data—transparency, open access, collaboration, and intelligent systems have enormous potential to facilitate disruptive innovation and social transformation. Digital solutions support the CE and contribute to reducing the carbon footprint of people and organizations, but can also manage climate risk and facilitate behavior changes.

Organizations and societies are now more available for change and for concertation of global impact policies. Today’s major political problems are clearly intertwined, from the fight against terrorism, migration, the development of new models of environmentally sustainable economic growth, to the promotion of tolerance in multicultural societies; resolving them requires a globally committed and supportive architecture, putting justice at the heart of governance and decision-making in a development agenda inspired by the common good.

1.6 Two good reasons to congratulate the European Commission

The EC has recently adopted two important and complementary strategies: one on biodiversity objectives (Biodiversity strategy) and the other on the necessary transformation of European agriculture (Farm to Fork strategy). These two texts justify careful reading, standing out for the clarity and strength of the proposals, and for the ambition of the objectives announced for the decade. If the doubts about their implementation and effectiveness are legitimate, the change and boldness they reveal are good reasons to congratulate the EC.

With the announcement of the strategies, the European executive implicitly acknowledges the failure of environmental policies in recent decades, both at Community level and by Member States. Thirty years of guidelines for nature conservation have changed nothing: the destruction of natural spaces continues to accelerate, the diversity of the most common species are collapsing, soils are increasingly poor, and fishing resources have become a worrying mirage in the approach to the Green Continent.

Adopting an inspiring attitude in favor of change, the EC has lucidly explained the narrative of ecological emergency. We have become accustomed to this concern being conveyed mainly by environmentalists, scientists, and the media, but in this case it is the political leaders who recognize the urgency, while confirming the failure of a decades-long intervention. It is these decision-makers who also recognize the loss of biodiversity and the collapse of ecosystems as one of the most serious threats facing humanity over the decade, affecting the foundations of the economy itself. And in addition, Europe assumes that the cost of inaction is immense and that the scenario that awaits us is one of the greatest challenges of this century, requiring knowledge and convergent political action in favor of an intelligent management of natural resources.

The ambition of the strategies presented is a great visionary. The EC wants binding targets for the restoration of natural ecosystems, including concrete measures to put Europe’s biodiversity on a recovery path by 2030, including transforming at least 30% of Europe’s land and seas into protected and effectively managed areas, reversing the decline of pollinators, reducing pesticide use by 50%, expanding organic farming to 25% of agricultural areas, planting three billion trees, reducing fertilizer use by at least 20%, restoring the natural course of at least 25,000 km of rivers, increasing the area of urban green spaces, and bringing fast broadband internet to all rural areas by 2025.

We know that the probability of noncompliance with these objectives is high. The Commission will also have to convince the most reluctant countries and confront the groups that have everything to lose by preserving the environment. The institutional culture that prevails in Brussels is still that of building standards with stakeholders and these are typically the large agricultural cooperatives, the public works giants, the large transport companies, and the agroindustry and agrifood. It is with these interlocutors that the technical details of the measures to be applied, along with the implementation rules and monitoring indicators, will be drawn up to assess their effectiveness, which may mean compromises and loss. In a way that the solutions are more favorable to the collective interest, it will be a greater civic awareness and responsibility of the citizen in participation and demand.

Complementarity of SDG goals 1-3, 6-8 with EU Green Deal are shown in Fig. 1.3; and complimentarity of SDG goals 9, 11 -15 with EU Green Deal are shown in, Fig. 1.4 and Table 1.3.

Figure 1.3 Complementarity of SDG goals 1–3, 6–8 with EU Green Deal. EU, European Union; SDG, sustainable development goal.

Figure 1.4 Complementarity of SDGs 9, 11–15 with EU Green Deal. EU, European Union; SDG, sustainable development goal.

Table 1.3

Source: From https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-and-sanitation.html.

Major contamination sources and pathways are shown in Fig. 1.5. From Farm to Fork is a fair, healthy, and environment-friendly food system. It has a heavy responsibility to alleviate the challenges in reducing agricultural pollution:

1. Water

2. Soil

3. Reduced agrochemical application

4. Integrated pest management

5. Address and alleviate the negative impact of agricultural production on climate and environment, aiming to improve health of both citizens and environment by a shift to sustainable food systems

6. CAP supports environment- and climate-friendly farming practices and standards known as Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions (GAECs) and Statutory Management Requirements (SMRs).

7. There are two GAECs focused on protecting waters: GAEC 4—Establishment of buffer strips along watercourses, and GAEC 5—Compulsory use of the new Farm Sustainability Tool for Nutrients.

8. Currently, drains in several cities carry the load of rainwater as well as the untreated gray water and black water from settlements nearby. In emerging economies, cities often become hubs of illegal and unauthorized colonies which thrive in the vicinity of stormwater drains. These create a unique pressure on the infrastructure as well as pose a challenge for civic bodies for ensuring adequate outflow quality as per environmental discharge norms. The flow characteristics (erratic, seasonal, minimum continuous flow) and structural constraints (the bed and site complexity) in the design of these drains restrict the options for implementing large wastewater treatment plants. In addition to the above, the designs which rely heavily on structural, mechanical, and energy inputs are economically not feasible and demand more maintenance, which acts as hindrances in these kinds of harsh environments. The aspect of human health is a critical factor in these scenarios as periodic exposure to sewage without any protective equipment during maintenance could lead to loss of good health and peace of mind.

Figure 1.5 Major contamination sources and pathways.

The use of decentralized and distributed wastewater treatment systems offers an in situ choice for achieving the desired result in quality and nutrient removal in the influent. These systems enable the water to be safely discharged to rivers or channelized for agricultural purposes. Further, the solid fraction in the sewage could be extracted as manure or compost after curing. The Circular economy (CE) in the management of water resources is shown in Fig. 1.6.

Figure 1.6 Circular economy model framework for water and wastewater sector.

Reference should be made to Fig. 1.7 for the key challenges to healthy ocean and waters, and to Table 1.3 for facts and figures about clean water and sanitation.

Figure 1.7 Key challenges to healthy ocean and waters.

1.7 Greywater treatment in constructed wetlands

Goal 6 of the UN SDGs covers clean water and sanitation. Water scarcity affects more than 40% of people. By 2050, it is projected that at least one in four people will suffer recurring water shortages. Safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030 requires that we invest in adequate infrastructure, provide sanitation facilities, and encourage hygiene.

Greywater is the wastewater emerging from household’s nontoilet wastewater (kitchen, bathroom, and laundry wastewater is termed as greywater) (Saumya et al., 2015). The greywater is said to have changes in physical–biological and chemical properties, categorized under a low to medium wastewater. Each individual on average generates about 100–150 lpcd (liters per capita per day) of wastewater. Greywater accounts for up to 65%–85% of the produced domestic wastewater, which can be increased to 90% by installing vacuum toilets (Ghaitidak and Yadav, 2013). The portable demand for flushing can come down by 10%–30% after recycling greywater (Vuppaladadiyam et al., 2018). Greywater decentralized treatment plants are said to reduce the energy load from 37.5% to 11.7% and minimize CO2 emissions by 25.71% compared to centralized treatment plants. Thus there are manifold reasons for greywater reuse to alleviate water stress (Leigh et al., 2019).

Depending on pollutant load greywater is further categorized as high pollutant greywater (HGW) or low pollutant greywater (LGW) (Boano et al., 2020). In the face of low pollutant load and high volume, greywater is considered as a valued source in the domain of wastewater recycling applications (Oteng-Peprah et al., 2018).

1.8 Grey water quantity

Normally, greywater accords up to 50%–85% of total household (Yoonus et al., 2020), and it can reach up to 90%–100% in houses practicing a dry toilet system. Developed nations of Asia, the United States, and Germany tend to generate greywater up to 200, 72–225, and 35–150 lpcd, respectively. Espoused eco-village tradition in various parts of Holland, Germany, Sweden, and Norway impede Germany as one of the lowest greywater producers in comparison with Asia and the United States. Moreover, in some regions of Africa, greywater production is noticed to be on a minimal note of only 14 lpcd due to water scarcity. However, the presence of numerous desalination plants in Oman (an arid region) contributes up to 160 lpcd; almost 82% conversion of domestic wastewater into greywater is observed. The physicochemical and biological parameters, i.e., BOD [(mg/l) biochemical oxygen demand], COD [(mg/l) chemical oxygen demand], TN [(mg/l) total nitrogen], TP [(mg/l) total phosphorus], TSS [(mg/l) Total soluble solids], turbidity [nephlometric turbity units (NTU)], temperature [(°C) (degree in celsius)], TC (TC/100 ml total coliform), and FC (FC/100 ml fecal coliform) of gray water are highly variable Table 1.4.

Table 1.4

1.9 Constructed wetlands

Wetlands are naturally occurring distinct ecosystems that are temporally or permanently inundated with water. These natural bodies serve various purposes from the treatment of water to being home for a diverse nature of animals and birds by maintaining ecological balance (Dorney 2018). In contrast constructed wetlands (CWs) are engineered to mimic the natural phenomena occurring in the wetlands, primarily for treating wastewater in a controlled manner.

CWs utilize a designed, manmade complex of submerged and emergent vegetation along with the saturated substrate, animal life, and water to provide wetlands for human benefits and uses. CWs are traditionally developed treatment systems with a combination of physical, biological, and chemical mechanisms for sustainable treatment of wastewater. CWs play a prolific role in the treatment of water, mainly in areas of tropical and subtropical climates of developing economies. In comparison with conventional centralized sewage treatment plants, wetlands tend to generate a minimal carbon footprint, and are very economical and easy to operate. Despite the eco-friendly nature of the CWs they are widely substituted for secondary and tertiary treatments units in the conventional municipal treatment units and even for greywater treatment. Organic matter, nutrients, and heavy metals are conventionally removed in the wetlands. Even though CWs provide indirect advantages of wildlife habitats and green space, and water purification at nominal operation and maintenance cost, there is a lack of the proper understanding of design aspects.

1.9.1 Constructed wetlands in greywater treatment and their classification

The novelty of CWs in treating greywater includes integrating two major treatment mechanisms: physical and biological degradation of the pollutants. The active substrate in CWs entraps pollutants and various biotic and abiotic organisms to perform biological degradation. From the past few decades of the research, there exists a preference gap in selecting the appropriate greywater treatment from various physical, chemical, and biological processes (De Gisi et al., 2016). However, there is a possibility of occurrence of all three processes in an eco-friendly manner in CWs (Nema et al., 2020).

The classification of CWs is shown in Fig. 1.8.

Figure 1.8 Different types of constructed wetland for treatment of domestic and industrial wastewaters.

1.9.2 Green walls and green roof

The huge land acquisition required for almost all CWs restricts their use to mostly rural and urban fringes. To overcome the above shortcomings in the conventional paradigm practice and to increase the adaptability of cost-efficient and eco-friendly treatment processes in highly dense areas, green roof and green walls have been developed. Apart from treating greywater, this system reduces noise pollution, improves air quality, promotes stormwater quality, and improves the energy-efficiency of the buildings (Pugh et al., 2012). Green walls are usually long vertical growing systems on the interior or exterior walls of the system. The roots of the green walls generally grow over the entire façade (Manso and Castro-Gomes, 2015). Green roofs are horizontally grown on the top of the building; normally green roofs are modular systems incorporated with a waterproof membrane, insulation layer, and a vegetation layer rooted in a growing substrate. Depending on the type of vegetation and weight-holding capacity of the holding roof, the height of the substrate in the green roof varies from 50 mm to 1 m. Canna lilies, Carex appressa, Lonicera japonica, and ornamental grapevine are commonly used plants for green roofs and green walls. The operational phenomena of this novel system are similar to that of conventional CWs but have an additional advantage of the low footprint.

Industrial and municipal sludge generation and management in the contemporary world is a subject of concern for resource generation and pollution prevention. The nutrients removed from wastewater are contained in the sludge, which must be handled so that the nutrients are not released back into the watercourses, while the material and energy content of the sludge need to be recovered for appropriate utilization. The large amounts of sewage sludge generated in wastewater treatment plants provide numerous opportunities for beneficial use; for example, in power generation, soil improvement, and even nutrient recycling. The possibilities of use are dependent on the quality and amount of sludge in question, the processes used in a particular treatment plant, and the national legislation and policy

Sludge management and resources are shown in Fig. 1.9.

Figure 1.9 Industrial and municipal sludge—sources, management, remediation, treatment, valorization, and energy recovery.

1.9.2.1 Marine plastic litter

Mid ocean gyres are only the tip of the iceberg concerning the plastic pollution problem in aquatic ecosystems. There is a need to strengthen research to fill some existing knowledge gaps with regard to sources, transport routes, distribution pathways, comparative analyses of plastic types, ecotoxicological responses, impacts on organisms and human health, and the main methodological problems (Table 1.5 and Fig. 1.10).

Table 1.5

Figure 1.10 Different categories of plastics as marine litter—a serious threat to oceans and seas.

1.9.2.2 Circular economy projects—for example, wastewater system

Water and wastewater systems are constantly developing throughout Europe. The obvious task is the security of water supply for residents and sewage disposal and treatment. The waterworks also conduct innovative projects focused on the CE in three areas: energy efficiency, water recovery, and material and waste management. The development of energy sources based on biogas produced in wastewater treatment plants allows us to strive for the energy self-sufficiency of our WWTPs. Water recovered from treated wastewater is used in Krakow for technological processes, washing sewers, and street cleaning. Technology is being developed for the use of wastewater in a power plant. The goal is to carry out waste management to recover valuable materials such as phosphorus, coagulants, and construction materials. The phosphorus recovery project is focused on an optimal technology for Polish wastewater treatment plants. The R&D center is based on the research potential of the central laboratory, which is constantly developing.

Inspired by the shape of the starfish, the mission will address the four interdependent challenges: (1) unsustainable footprint, (2) climate change, (3) lack of understanding, and (4) connection, investment, and inadequate governance, by proposing five overarching objectives for 2030, as shown in the Fig. 1.11. The complexity of the water pollution continuum and European strategies to improving freshwater quality are explained in Fig. 1.10. In order to achieve environmental sustainability (achieving SDGs via the EU GD) sustainability science education is essential in the infusion model (Figs. 1.12 and 1.13). Environmental sustainability is explained in Fig. 1.14.

Figure 1.11 Mission starfish diagram addressing major challenges of environmental sustainability.

Figure 1.12 Complexity of the water pollution continuum and European strategies to improving freshwater quality. A conceptual representation of terrestrial water cycle and pollution trajectories of different travel times (denoted by weight of arrows) and extent (denoted by letters indicating S source, M mobilization, D delivery, and I impact). Each continuum step involves complex processes controlling diffuse pollution mobilization, retention, and transfer to the downstream compartment. European freshwater quality is regulated by the WFD (focus on impact) while the new Green Deal, Farm to Fork, CAP, and Nitrates Directive are focused on sources and their mobilization. Mission Starfish focuses on reducing pollution point sources and restoring ocean ecosystems. CAP, Common agricultural policy; WFD, Water Framework Directive. From Bieroza, M.Z., Bol, R., Glendell, M., 2021. What is the deal with the Green Deal: will the new strategy help to improve European freshwater quality beyond the Water Framework Directive? Sci. Total Environ, 148080.

Figures 1.13 In order to achieve the objectives of UN SDGs via EU GD sustainability science education is essential in the infusion model. EU, European Union; GD, Green Deal; UN SDGs, United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals.

Figure 1.14 Environmental sustainability = Green Economy acts as an umbrella and it includes elements from circular economy and bioeconomy concepts (e.g., eco-efficiency; renewables), Renewables, resource recovery, and blue economy. It also covers additional ideas, e.g., nature-cure based solutions.

The Green Deal (European Commission, 2019a) is a key element of the EU strategy to implement the United Nation’s SDGs, which is pertinent to reducing air, water, and soil pollution, reducing the loss of biodiversity and climate change impacts, while ensuring the sustainable use of energy and natural resources, and the well-being of citizens. A key objective of the Green Deal is to provide a holistic policy framework for achieving carbon neutrality by 2050 (Bieroza et al., 2021; European Commission, 2019).

1.10 Act now campaign of the United Nations toward sustainable lifestyles

The Act Now campaign was launched at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP 24) in December 2018, with a call from Sir David Attenborough in conjunction with the award-winning People’s Seat initiative.

Act Now is the United Nations campaign for individual action on climate change and sustainability. Every one of us can help to limit global warming and take care of our planet. By changing our habits and making choices that have less harmful effects on the environment, we have the power to confront the climate challenge and build a more sustainable world. Every one of us can help limit global warming and take care of our planet. By changing our habits and making choices that have less harmful effects on the environment, we have the power to confront the climate challenge and build a more sustainable world. We can all live sustainably and help build a better world for everyone. But this means taking a look at how we live and understanding how our lifestyle choices impact the world around us. We make hundreds of thousands of decisions during the course of our lives. The choices we make and the lifestyles we live have a profound impact on our planet. Ten simple actions one can take every day are shown in Fig. 1.15; the more people act now on these 10 actions the bigger the impact.

Figure 1.15 Act Now campaign launched at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP 24) in December 2018, with a call from Sir David Attenborough in conjunction with the award-winning People’s Seat initiative.

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