The Field Is The World: Proclaiming, Translating, and Serving by the American Board of Commisioners for Foreign Missions 1810-40

By Donald Philip Corr

The immediate origins of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions are well known.

In the midst of the Second Great Awakening and a growing Trinitarian-Unitarian controversy, a small group of college students met in 1806 to discuss the spiritual condition of the Asian nations. A storm arose and they took shelter in a haystack. From this “Haystack Prayer Meeting” came the resolve to take the Gospel to those who had not heard. The Field Is the World tells the story of the students’ petition to the General Association of Congregational Ministers of Massachusetts to seek ways to respond to Christ’s call to preach the gospel to every creature. The resulting Board of Commissioners became the first evangelical mission organization to transcend denominational affiliations in the U.S. and to represent the epitome of the missionary enterprise at large.

Donald Philip Corr has presented one of a limited number of scholarly works on the Board’s ministry beyond the U.S., particularly its pioneering efforts on the role of preaching and social work and the theme of indigenization among unreached peoples.

• Language: English
• Publisher: William Carey Publishing
• Release date: May 1, 1991
• ISBN: 9780878080595

Donald Philip Corr

Donald Philip "Phil" Corr (PhD, Fuller Theological Seminary) has served in churches from Southern California to Boston.  In each congregation he has been mission-minded and promoted the Great Commission.  Phil is married and has three children.

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The Field Is the World: Proclaiming, Translating, and Serving by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 1810-40

Copyright © 2009 Donald Philip Corr. All Rights Reserved.

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All Scripture quotations, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from the Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright ©1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.™ Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com. The NIV and New International Version are trademarks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.™

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FULLER THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

THE FIELD IS THE WORLD:

PROCLAIMING, TRANSLATING, AND SERVING

BY THE AMERICAN BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN MISSIONS

1810-40

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

BY

DONALD PHILIP CORR

PASADENA, CALIFORNIA

MAY 1993

DEDICATED TO

Donald John Corr, In Memoriam

Dorothy Lamar Corr, Cum Gratia

Donald Robert Corr, In Posterum

PREFACE

As a Congregationalist by upbringing and persuasion, I have had an interest in the mission work of the church since my college days. This dissertation combines my interest in evangelical and Trinitarian Congregationalists with the labors of the first major voluntary association of the young American republic: the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions.

Such interests naturally led me to New England, where I lived for three years while earning a degree from Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary--near the lovely North Shore. Eight years after graduating from Gordon-Conwell, I returned to the Boston area to begin preliminary research in the work of the ABCFM. Harvard’s Houghton Library must receive pride of place as the repository of official Board documents. My thanks go to Melanie Wisener of the Houghton Library for her unstinting and gracious assistance over the phone and in person.

A few miles west of Harvard I discovered the value of the Andover Newton library. The institutional heir to the training ground of the first Board missionaries, Andover’s Special Collection section now houses archives made more accessible to the researcher by the efforts of Diana Yount, who also has been of immense assistance. I wish to thank others at a library down the coast from the Boston area: Steven Peterson (formerly the head librarian, now at Trinity College in Hartford) and those who work in the Special Collections Room of the Yale Divinity School Library.

Crossing the continent, I would like to thank individuals at three southern California libraries. The docents at Readers’ Services of the Huntington Library have been kind to and long-suffering with yet another graduate student from Fuller Theological Seminary. Special thanks at the Huntington go to Mary Wright of the Huntington’s Rare Book Reading Room. Her humor (Where’s my chocolate!?) and competence made already pleasant hours of research that much more enjoyable. Michael Boddy, the head librarian at the Southern California School of Theology at Claremont, extended every courtesy to me as I delved into copies of The Panoplist and Missionary Herald. Similarly, John Dickason of Fuller’s McCallister Library, has been an encouragement and a help to me. Olive Brown and Shieu-yu Hwang--both reference librarians at Fuller--deserve particular praise for their efforts above and beyond the call of duty. In some respects, the strongest parts of this dissertation reflect their cheerful responses to my numerous requests for assistance. The three of us have shared in the joy of seeing this work completed.

Travelling across part of the Pacific to Hawaii, I would like to thank one library and one couple for their contributions to my life and work. Various workers at the Hawaiian Mission Children’s Society Library have assisted me over the phone and through the mail. Additionally, the friendship of the Reverend Gerald and Mrs. Kaye Sanders has been an inspiration to me over the past decade and especially during the past year and a half.

Returning to the mainland to stay, various organizations and individuals merit my gratitude. The Biblical Witness Fellowship--of which Gerald Sanders was Executive Director--has provided both moral and financial support. As the first doctoral Reformation Scholar of the BWF, I have benefited from the support of such friends as Barbara and Armand Weller, Steve and Constance Carmany, and the Runnion-Bareford tribe. Churches that have taken a special interest in me have included: First E&R of Vermilion, Ohio; the United Church of Huntington, Ohio; and the Neighborhood Congregational Church (UCC) of Laguna, California, from which I received the Matthew O. Reynolds Memorial Scholarship in 1991. Thanks too to the yoked UCC parish of St. John’s and Henrietta, Ohio, where I earned my pastoral spurs and taught my first church history class.

I am overwhelmed with gratitude when I consider the family members who made possible my concentrating full time on earning a Ph.D. Each family member knows his or her contribution, and to each I give my thanks.

During the past four years I have also had a school family. My first contact was with a coordinator for Fuller’s Center for Advanced Theological Studies: Shellie Theisen. The subsequent three coordinators--who have encouraged and guided me through various obstacles--were: Deborah Dail, Gretchen Immen, and Beth Bolsinger. Fellow Ph.D. students have provided friendship and challenge, most especially Tom Pfizenmaier. Master’s level students have provided countless hours of stimulation and inspiration. Professors and administrators who have provided significant help include: Richard Muller, Paul Pearson, Colin Brown, Mel Robeck and James E. Bradley.

I have saved for the last my thanks to Jim Bradley, who has been far more than my mentor. He believed in me and my scholarly abilities before I did. He worked with me during my first year to enable me to begin treading the road of academic excellence. As his teaching assistant, I have been privileged to observe and participate with a master teacher, who is admired by students and faculty alike for his lecturing ability, interest in the well-being of others, and excellence in research. When a personal crisis occurred, Jim proved to be a friend closer than any brother. When it comes to thanking Jim and his family, the cliche becomes significant: words cannot begin to express my gratitude.

CONTENTS

PREFACE

Chapter

1. Introduction

2. Sermons Preached to the ABCFM Annual Meeting

3. Proclamation on the Field by ABCFM Missionaries

4. Proclamation by Indigenous Preachers

5. Bible Translation by Board Missionaries

6. Education, Medicine and Social Concern

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHIC ESSAY on American Board Primary Sources

SECONDARY SOURCES

Chapter 1. Introduction

Recent church historians concur on the neglect of attention given to early American evangelical missionaries and organizations. Leonard Sweet observed that the history of evangelical missions has been one of the least favorite inquiries in American religious history during the last twenty years.¹ William Hutchison avers that distortions of mission endeavors--both positive and negative--have led to neglect and avoidance concerning histories on nineteenth century outreach.² Qualifying Sweet’s statement, Hutchison claims that secular scholars, such as John Fairbank, began in the 1970s to focus some attention on foreign mission history. Even with his efforts to highlight mission work, Fairbank complained that the missionary had been the invisible man of American history.³

Within the canopy of mission organizations and individuals, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions deserves the special attention that has always been accorded to it. As the first and, for a significant period of time, the largest mission organization, the American Board (or ABCFM) transcended denominational affiliation and represented the epitome of the missionary enterprise at large.⁴ Although the Board has received more attention than most other nineteenth-century mission organizations, it has--by comparison with its influence and accomplishments--been abysmally neglected by scholars.⁵

Recognizing that much remains to be done with regard to the study of Congregational missions⁶ and affirming with Hutchison that beginnings must be attempted,⁷ this dissertation will demonstrate the Board’s consistency in carrying out its primary goal of proclaiming the Gospel. My dissertation focuses on the overseas aspect of the Board’s operations. Though the ABCFM did significant work among Native Americans, the efforts on the American continent were eventually subsumed under the Home Missionary Society. Despite the neglect of specifics, good research has been done in foreign missions, and there is sufficient information now available reflecting back on the Board’s work to attempt a new synthesis. Viewing the entire world as the mission field, ABCFM administrators, supporters and missionaries between 1810 and 1840 considered propagating the Gospel to be the highest priority, with Bible translation an important complement to preaching--and social concern clearly subordinate to preaching and translating. The dissertation will defend this thesis by examining sermons preached: at annual meetings of the Board, by missionaries on the field, and by indigenous preachers. Additionally, Bible translation and social concern will be shown to emphasize the role of preaching and the theme of indigenization.

Board historians and chroniclers have touched upon the emphasis of preaching during the ABCFM’s early decades. Phillips seems to assume the emphasis and moves on to other matters. Frederick Field Goodsell expresses some embarrassment with the pioneers who were on fire to preach Christ crucified and risen, with a view to producing genuine individual conversions to Christ.⁸ William Ellsworth Strong recognizes the place of preaching during the Board’s first one hundred years.⁹ Nineteenth century writers--such as Rufus Anderson and Joseph Tracy--were too close to the situation to provide a critical analysis.¹⁰

In 1977, William Daniel Donahoo claimed that only one previous historiographic work on the Board’s efforts in the Middle East had done anything more than chronicle the ABCFM’s internal history.¹¹ My response to Donahoo--who wrote a valuable dissertation on social service by the Board--is that all but Tracy address themselves to various issues. Instead of an orderly chronicle of the society’s general history, most scholars have focused on a theme, a region,¹² or an ethnic group.¹³ Hutchison, Wolfgang Löwe,¹⁴ and Alan Frederick Perry¹⁵ have emphasized theories, ideas, or motivation.¹⁶ Oliver Elsbree examines the rise of the missionary spirit in the young United States,¹⁷ while Earl MacCormac¹⁸ evaluates the institutionalization of the mission movement.

Some of the scholarly work on the Board discusses the historical and theological milieu that led to the ABCFM’s founding, beginnings, and early decades. Influenced by the theology and practice of Jonathan Edwards¹⁹ and Samuel Hopkins,²⁰ the founders and first generation of Board leaders and missionaries sought to proclaim the Gospel on the American continent and overseas.

The immediate origins of the Board are well known. In the midst of the Second Great Awakening and a growing Trinitarian-Unitarian controversy, a small group of college students met in 1806 to discuss the spiritual condition of the Asian nations. A storm arose and they took shelter in a haystack. From this Haystack Prayer Meeting came the resolve to take the Gospel to those who had not heard. On June 28, 1810, an application for advice was made to the General Association of Congregational Ministers of Massachusetts. Meeting in Bradford, the presenters sought counsel as how best to fulfill Christ’s specific directive, Go ye into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature. On June 29, the General Association voted to establish a Board of Commissioners to implement the request made by the students who were now in seminary. This led to the Act of Incorporation in 1812, which officially allowed the ABCFM to become a self-governing board.²¹

The Act of Incorporation includes the theme of proclamation. Because of its seminal nature and because it has not been examined before in the context of the motives for propagation during the Board’s first thirty years, the whereas statement of this legislation merits a full quotation.

Whereas William Bartlett and others have been associated under the name of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, for the purpose of propagating the Gospel in heathen lands, by supporting missionaries and diffusing a knowledge of the holy Scriptures, and have prayed to be incorporated in order more effectually to promote the laudable object of their association....²²

Between 1812 and 1840, representatives of the American Board went to the following people and places: India (the Bombay area), northern Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Hawaii, east Asia (China, Singapore and Siam), the Middle East (Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Syria, the Holy Land, and Persia), and Africa (Western Africa--Cape Palmas--and Southern Africa--among the Zulus). The Board established missions among Christian minorities in the Ottoman Empire and Jews in Constantinople. The Gospel was proclaimed among Muslims in Turkey, Arabia and Persia.

The emphasis on preaching the Gospel to all nations found expression in the sermons given to annual meetings of the American Board. Beginning with Timothy Dwight in 1813 and continuing beyond Nathan S. S. Beman’s 1840 address, the sermons reflected the developments among orthodox evangelicals during that period: the work of the United Front,²³ the establishment of voluntary service societies, and the controversy over Charles G. Finney’s New Measures.²⁴ Church pastors, as well as college and seminary professors and presidents, addressed the Board and influenced future Board missionaries.

Before leaving America’s shores, the missionaries-to-be prepared as best they could to proclaim the Gospel to people who had not heard. Preparation included both required and unofficial short dissertations written at seminary. Several of the dissertations support the idea of seminarians having an awareness of and sensitivity to other cultures. Proclamation took various forms, was responded to in different ways, and was reported in the Board journal,²⁵ memoirs,²⁶ and other genre. A close reading of sermons delivered both on and off the mission field confirms conclusions so adequately developed by Hutchison on the subject of indigenization. The journals and memoirs also include references to indigenous preachers, Bible translations, and social concern.

Despite the attention given to indigenous groups in recent years, no scholar has examined native proclaimers of the Gospel related in some way with the Board and its missionaries. Other than Richard Bohr in a book edited by John Fairbank,²⁷ no recent scholar has paid any attention to first generation indigenous preachers who worked with the ABCFM. Early nineteenth-century and twentieth-century writers, including missionaries, have handed down information on the life and labors of such people as Bartimeus Puaaki of Hawaii.

Some of the indigenous preachers served as assistants in the Bible translation process. On several continents, Board missionaries produced translations which were in the mother tongue of the people among whom they served and provided support to the preaching of the Gospel. Gordon Hall and Samuel Newell--Board agents in India--emphasized the need to be sensitive to a dynamic translation in the indigenous language.²⁸ The printing press and literacy training contributed to the dissemination and understanding of the Bible translations.

The printing press and literacy work also entered into the educational, medical and social ministries performed by the ABCFM. The Board and its missionaries recognized that such ministries were subordinate to the preaching of the Gospel. In the area of education, the Lancasterian model--developed to instruct as many poor children as possible in England during the early 1800s--proved to be the most popular among Board missionaries during the first three decades.²⁹

Board teachers, physicians and other workers recognized that preaching came first. On the home front during annual meetings and in Board publications, the message between 1812 and 1840 and beyond was clear: the proclamation of the Gospel was paramount and to be carried out around the globe. As Rufus Anderson reminded individuals considering the missionary life, ‘The field is the world.’³⁰

¹P. 51 of Leonard Sweet’s essay The Evangelical, in The Evangelical Tradition in America. Leonard Sweet, ed. (Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press, 1984.

²William Hutchison, Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987), p. 2. Robert Schneider--a student of Hutchison’s--notes that the history of Christian foreign missions is an important, if often neglected element in the history of religion on p. 1 of his The Senior Secretary: Rufus Anderson and the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 1810-1860. (Ph.D. diss., Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Library Microreproducing Department, 1980). Edward V. Gulick concurs that, despite the impact made by missionaries during the nineteenth-century, historians have done little work on the subject of missions. Gulick opines that the dearth of attention is due to the polarized view of missionaries: that they were either among the noblest people on earth or sacred and silly gentlemen, p. vii of Gulick’s Peter Parker and the Opening of China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973).

³P. 877 of John K. Fairbank’s Assignment for the 70’s, American Historical Review 74 (February 1969). Also in 1969, Fairbank oversaw the publication of Clifton Jackson Phillips’s seminal 1954 dissertation covering the first fifty years of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, entitled Protestant America and the Pagan World: American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. 1810-1860 (Cambridge, Mass.: East Asian Research Center, Harvard University Press, 1969).

⁴Hutchison, p. 45. Though the ABCFM eventually became solely identified with Congregationalists, in its early decades the Board also included Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed individuals and churches.

⁵See the as yet unpublished interpretative bibliography of publications by the Board in its first one hundred years. On p. 3 of an early draft, Steve Peterson writes that the records of the Board await more imaginative work of the historian.

⁶Schneider, p. 10.

⁷Hutchison, p. 4.

⁸P. 33 of Frederick Field Goodsell’s You Shal1 Be Mv Witnesses. An interpretation of the history of the American Board 1810-1960 (Boston: American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 1959). Goodsell was the last leader of the American Board before it became known as the United Church Board for World Ministries.

⁹William Ellsworth Strong, The Story of the American Board: an account of the first hundred years of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (Boston: the Pilgrim Press, 1910).

¹⁰For a review of the Board’s first fifty years, see Rufus Anderson’s Memorial Volume of the First Fifty Years of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (Boston: The Board, 1862). Tracy wrote the first chronicle of the Board’s work. Chronicling each year in geographical order, preaching permeates the work, yet there is little in the way of analysis. History of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, compiled chiefly from the published and unpublished Documents of the Board, in History of American Missions to the Heathen (Worcester: Spooner and Howland, 1840; reprint ed., Program in America Series, n.p.: Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1970). William Donahoo, The Missionary Expression of American Social Beliefs" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1977), p. 275. Donahoo’s exception is Abdul Atif Tibawi’s American Interests in Syria 1800-1901. A Study of Educational. Literary and Religious Work (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966).

¹¹William Donahoo, The Missionary Expression of American Social Beliefs (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1977), p. 275. Donahoo’s exception is Abdul Atif Tibawi’s American Interests in Syria 1800-1901. A Study of Educational. Literary and Religious Work (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966).

¹²Peter Kawerau, Amerika und die orientalischen Kirchen: Ursprung und Anfang der amerikanischen Mission under den National Kirchen Westasiens (Berlin: W. De Gruyter, 1958).

¹³John A. Andrew III discusses New England and Hawaii in his Rebuilding the Christian Commonwealth: New England Congregationalists and Foreign Missions, 1800-1830 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1976). Ahamd Mansoori, American Missionaries in Iran, 1834-1984 (Ph.D. diss., Ball State University, 1986). Helen Isabel Root, comp., A Century Board in Ceylon, 1816-1916 (Boston: Published by the American Ceylon Mission, 1916. Murray A. Rubinstein, Zion’s Corner: Origins of the American Protestant Missionary Movement in China, 1827-1839 (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1976). Theodore Saloutos, American Missionaries in Greece: 1820-1869 Church History (June 1955), pp. 152-72. Two works on the Board’s work among Armenians are: Vahan H. Tootikian’s Armenian Congregationalism: from mission to membership, in Hidden Histories in the UCC; ed. by Barbara Zikmund (New York: Pilgrim Press, 1984); and Gorun Shrikian’s Armenians Under the Ottoman Empire and the American Mission’s Influence on their Intellectual and Social Renaissance (Th.D. diss., Concordia Seminary in Exile (Seminex) in Cooperation with Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago, 1977).

¹⁴Wolfgang Eberhard Löwe, The First American Foreign Missionaries: ‘The Students,’ 1810-1820. An Inquiry into Their Theological Motives (Ph.D. diss., Brown University, 1962).

¹⁵Alan Frederick Perry, The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and the London Missionary Society in the Nineteenth Century: A Study of Ideas (Ph.D. diss.: Washington University, 1974).

¹⁶See R. Pierce Beaver’s Missionary Motivation through Three Centuries, Jerald C. Brauer ed., Reinterpretation in American Church History (Chicago: n.p., 1968).

¹⁷O1iver Wendell Elsbree, Rise of the Missionary Spirit in America 1790-1815 (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1928).

¹⁸Earl MacCormac, The Transition from Voluntary Missionary Society to the Church as a Missionary Organization (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1961).

¹⁹Ronald Edwin Davies has written Prepare ye the way of the Lord: the missiological thought and practice of Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) (Ph.D. diss., Fuller Theological Seminary, 1989). Kawerau begins his work with a chapter on Jonathan Edwards, pp. 1-74. Löwe examines the Missionary Elements in the Theology of Jonathan Edwards on pp. 30-48. Charles Chaney focuses on Jonathan Edwards: Mission Theology in the New Age, on pp. 57-74 of his The Birth of Missions in America (South Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1976). Hutchison refers to Edwards and missions on pp. 29-30, 38, 40-41, 48, 53-54, and 61. See also pp. 2, 5-6, 8-9, 13, and 313-14 of Phillips.

²⁰Kawerau covers Samuel Hopkins on pp. 75-89. Löwe considers Hopkins on pp. 49-71. Chaney looks at Hopkins’s Missionary Theology Through the Revolution on pp. 74-84. See also Hutchison, pp. 41, 49-51, 54, 61, and 78; and Phillips, pp. 6, 9, 18, 206, and 203.

²¹Numerous histories of the beginnings and early years of the Board include: Rubenstein, pp. 5-40; Perry, pp. 51-80; most of Phillips; Goodsell, pp. 1-40; Anderson, pp. 41-49 and passim; most of Tracy; Hutchison, pp. 45-47, 55, and 56; Andrew, pp. 70-96; and Kawerau, pp. 119-128.

²²Anderson, Memorial Volume. Appendix I, p. 405.

²³Charles I. Foster, An Errand of Mercy: The Evangelical United Front. 1790-1837 (Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1960).

²⁴The Memoirs of Charles G. Finney. The Complete Restored Text, Garth M. Rosell and Richard A.G. Dupuis, eds. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989); and Garth M. Rosell, Charles Grandison Finney and the Rise of the Benevolence Empire (Ph.D. diss., University of minnesota, 1971).

²⁵Jedidiah Morse began publishing The Panoplist one year before the Haystack prayer meeting. The Panoplist increasingly reported mission activities. In 1808 The Panoplist merged with The Massachusetts Missionary Magazine and took the name of The Panoplist and Missionary Magazine from 1808-17. From 1818 through 1820 it was called The Panoplist and Missionary Herald. Becoming the official journal of the ABCFM, the magazine was called the Missionary Herald beginning in 1821. Donahoo, p. 264, states that none of the weekly religious newspapers...remotely equaled the Herald in presenting either mission views or information on foreign societies. Shrikian, pp. 5 and 6, characterizes the Missionary Herald as one of the most helpful sources" for his investigation. Kawerau uses The Panoplist and the Missionary Herald for a significant percentage (approximately 75X) of his documentation.

²⁶Phillips lists some Missionary Memoirs and Letters on pp. 334-39; Missionary Journals, Travels, and Researches on p. 339-42. Other primary sources include Char Miller, ed., Selected Writings of Hiram Bingham 1814-1869. Missionary to the Hawaiian Islands: To Raise the Lord’s Banner (Lewiston, New York: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1988) Studies in American Religion, vol. 31; William D. Westervelt and the Loomis Journal Committee," Copy of the Journal of E. Loomis. Hawaii [May 17] 1824-[January 27,] 1826 (n.p.: University of Hawaii); and Edward Dorr Griffin, comp., Forty Years in the Turkish Empire: or Memoirs of Rev. William Goode11 (New York: Robert Carter and Brothers, 1876).

²⁷Richard Bohr, Liang Fa’s Quest for Moral Power, in Suzanne Wilson Barnett and John King Fairbank, eds., Christianity in China: Early Protestant Missionary Writings (Cambridge: Committee on American-East Asian Relations of the Department of History in collaboration with The Council on East Asian Studies/Harvard University, 1985), pp. 35-46.

²⁸May 25, 1816 letter from Hall and Newell in Panoplist